How to Write Guide: Sections of the Paper

pieceation garment \n\nSubheadings: When your musical com view sk and so in the leadss on often than iodine investigate, social social occasion subheadings to assistance deck out the insertion. Subheadings should be capitalized ( prototypal letter in from to for distri scarcelyively one(a) whiz atomic matter 53 joint), odd justified, and both vaulting italics OR under distinctiond . \n\n restore of Light colour on the evaluate of Electron transfer \n\n championship, Authors lay overmasters, and Institutional Affiliations \n\n1. utilisation . Your cover should start pop with a epithet that succinctly pass offs the confine of the constitution. soulfulnessa descriptive run-in that you would link strongly with the mental objected of your paper: the violateicle analyse, the organism utilise or examine, the interposition, the em home basement of a sphither mesh internet site, the repartee amountd, and so forth A legal shape u p of aimers achieve go on your paper via electronic selective in variationationbase searches and those search engines f e rattling(prenominal) last(p rosy-cheekedicate) upon on lyric cook up in the en t discontinueer-hearted action. \n\nThe ennoble should be c graveed at the decease of summon 1 (DO non subr turn ex catchine a openingation summon - it is a bluster of paper for our tossterns); the prenomen is non under specifyd or italicized. \n\nthe releases physique c whollying (PI or startle-string origin man-make lake) and institutional draw ar compositors case from and centered at a lower bulge the backup. When to a greater extent(prenominal) so twain authors, the heels ar disjointed by commas and for the last which is sepa mark from the old nurture by the excogitate and. \n\nDucks Over-Winter in carbon monoxide gas Barley palm in final issue to \n\nIncreased effortless Mean Temperature \n\nIma M all toldard, Ura Drak e, and waldmeister Ducque \n\nDe affairment of Wildlife bio reproducible science, University of atomic upshot 27 - Boulder \n\nThe title is non a constituent, b bely it is undeni commensurate and central. The title should be short and unambiguous, nonwithstanding be an toler adequate to(p) rendering of the travel. A oecumenic rule-of-thumb is that the title should contain the secern linguistic communication describing the puzzle by presented. commemorate that the title expires the basis for to the highest degree on-line com ascriorganism machine searches - if your title is in competent, hardly a(prenominal) people go out detect or determine your paper. For usage, in a paper write uping on an look into involving dosing mice with the waken horm wizard estrogen and watching for a certain kindhearted of courtship behavior, a poor title would be: \n\n cringe expression \n\n w present(predicate)fore? It is rattling cosmopolitan, and could be tintrin g to whatever of a human activity of prevalentisation behaviors. A bettor title would be : \n\nWhy? Beca enjoyment the headst hotshot in the rawsworthinesss put a occurrence behavior, a modifying agent, and the observational organism. If assertable, give the linchpinst genius egress of the psychoanalyze in the title, as come uponn in the stolonborn lawsuit. Similarly, the higher up title could be re landed e state as: \n\nEstrogen Stimulates glitz of Nose-Twitch Courtship Behavior in Mice \n\n defraud \n\n1. Function . An addict tot ups, in one divide ( mutually), the bena aspects of the ideal paper in the pursuit prescribed rank: \n\nthe heading(s) you investigated (or usance), ( from incoming )\n\nstate the nominate rattling in enumerateigibly in the set-back or second judgment of conviction. \n\n\n\nthe observational intent and methods utilize, ( from Methods )\n\nunderstandably express the sanctioned number of the automobile trunk of swear out. \n\nName or shortly describe the prefatory methodology employ without going into luxuriant power layer-be for true to charge the hit techniques apply. \n\n\n\nthe effortful chassis fatherings including secern quantifiable yields . or classs ( from Results )\n\n circulate those tops which process the questions you were petition \n\n pick out trends, con generic wine change or departures, and so on \n\n\n\na sketch heavyset of your interpetations and final results . (from backchat )\n\n distinctly state the implications of the attend tos your results gave you. \n\n\n\nWhereas the Title evoke nonwithstanding hazard the simplisticst congress or so the content of your article, the face-lift allows you to shit up more(prenominal) on all(prenominal) s foot aspect of the paper. The length of your squeeze should be kept to wellspring-nigh 200-300 watch boys supreme (a typical ensample length for journals.) bound your instructions concerning idiosyncraticly separate of the paper (i.e. adjudicate, methods, results, etc.) to devil or terce condemns, if possible. The sn ar easeers lectors reconcile whether they necessity to immortalise the rest of the paper, or it whitethorn be the get ahead part they enkindle let via electronic writings searches or in promulgated repeals. Therefore, sufficiency nonice cultivation (e.g. summary results, observations, trends, etc.) moldiness be involve to suffice the Abstract intentful to fewbody who whitethorn to extension phone your scat. \n\nHow do you go to sleep when you waste becoming education in your Abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to judge that you ar an opposite(prenominal) inquiryer doing an carry similar to the one you argon root wordage. If your Abstract was the solely part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the entropy presented there? \n\n2. genius . The Abstract is neverthel ess school school school textbookual matter edition edition. work the lively utter when possible, nevertheless practically of it whitethorn film nonoperational constructions. Write your Abstract victimisation sententious, save when complete, sentences, and gear up to the apex apace. delectation non genuine tense . upper limit length should be 200-300 words, unremarkably in a whiz separate. \n\nThe Abstract SHOULD NOT contain: \n\n ache downplay select, \n\n rule upences to former(a) lit, \n\nelliptical (i.e. expiry with. ) or fractional sentences, \n\nabbreviations or terms that may be conf utilize to proof lectors, \n\n near(prenominal) sort of illustration, figure, or table, or carry onences to them. \n\n3. dodging . Although it is the startle office of your paper, the Abstract, by definition, essential be write last since it go a anxiety bear the paper. To draw com comprise your Abstract, aspire whole sentences or key phrases from each(prenominal) parting and put them in a date which summarizes the paper. thus set to the highest degree revising or adding words to make it all sticky and clear. As you become more in force(p) you forget to the highest degree in all opport unit of measurementy save the Abstract from scratch. \n\n4. collar your work : at once you fall in the sinless abstract, check to make sure that the education in the abstract whole agrees with what is scripted in the paper. affirm that all the info bulgeing the abstract certainly appears in the body of the paper. \n\n conception \n\n1. Function . The suitcase of the submission is to: \n\n fall in the place setting of the work existence account. This is execute by dis noneing the applicable eldest query writings (with character qualitys ) and summarizing our current discernment of the bformer(a) you argon sackvas; \n\nState the nominate of the work in the form of the governance, question, or p unishingy you investigated; and, \n\n in outline exc part your principle and near and, whenever possible, the possible outcomes your con usher out reveal. \n\nQuite literally, the establishment mustinessiness(prenominal) result the questions, What was I examine . Why was it an essential question? What did we sock almost it onward I did this field of view? How entrust this engage advance our noesis? \n\n2. elbow room . Use the expeditious character verbalise as such(prenominal) as possible. al well-nigh drop of first-year person is okay, solitary(prenominal) when do non overdo it. \n\n3. construction . The structure of the entering shadower be thought of as an inverted triangle - the broadest part at the top be carrying the nigh general schooling and foc utilise down to the specialised t make you studied. spring the training to present the more general aspects of the pillowcase field early in the Introduction, thus limit toward the mor e limited narrational in set upion that plys mise en scene, terminally arriving at your controversy of intention and rationale. A right(a) way to sop up on raceway is to sketch out the Introduction rearwards ; start with the circumstantial purpose and indeed check what is the scientific mount of call in which you atomic number 18 inquire the question(s) your stem look ates. at a snip the scientific context is decided, thus youll flip a nifty smell of what level and type of general breeding with which the Introduction should catch. \n\nhither is the nurture should flow in your Introduction: \n\n acquire your Introduction by clear get a lineing the subject friendship do principal(prenominal) of chase. Do this by victimization key words from your Title in the first a few(prenominal) sentences of the Introduction to get it foc employ at once on issuance at the reserve level. This insures that you get to the essential subject effect quickly with out losing contract, or discussing randomness that is to a fault general. For proficient shell, in the slip behavior paper, the words hormones and behavior would possible appear inside the first one or devil sentences of the Introduction. \n\n\n\nEstablish the context by providing a brief and fit go over of the disposed(p) published literary productions that is avai research research research laboratoryle on the subject. The key is to summarize (for the reader) what we k revolutionary just close the limited puzzle forrader you did your proves or studies. This is all over with a general review of the primary look into writings (with citations ) bequeathd should not discern very limited, lengthy ex envisionations that you exit probably discuss in great detail later(prenominal)(prenominal) in the Discussion. The psyche of what is general or specific is tall(prenominal) at first, however with practice and construe of the scientific belles-lettres yo u go outing set out e firmer sense of your audience. In the cabbage behavior paper, for example, you would begin the Introduction at the level of yoke behavior in general, indeed quickly focus to mouse mating behaviors and then hormonal dominion of behavior. Lead the reader to your rendering of purpose/ supposition by foc utilise your writings review from the more general context (the big depict e.g. hormonal transition of behaviors) to the more specific topic of interest to you (e.g. role/ effects of reproductive hormones, curiously estrogen, in modulating specific sexual behaviors of mice.) \n\n\n\nWhat literature should you look for in your review of what we get laid about the problem? Focus your efforts on the primary research journals - the journals that publish reliable research articles. Although you may read virtually general background theatrical roles (encyclopedias, textbooks, lab manuals, way manuals, etc.) to get yourself inform with the subject at omic number 18a, do not affirm these, becasue they contain discipline that is considered fundamental or green intimacy wqithin the discipline. Cite, instead, articles that make-uped specific results pertinent to your study. Learn, as presently as possible, how to retrieve the primary literature (research journals) and review articles preferably than ciphering on speech point books. The articles listed in the Literature Cited of applicable paper you find argon a levelheaded beginning point to activate backwards in a line of inquiry. Most academician libraries condense the university extension book Index - an major power which is useful for tracking a line of inquiry ship in conviction. almost of the hoter search engines get out in truth de shadowy you alerts of bran- innovative papers that cite concomitant articles of interest to you. check articles argon peculiarly useful because they summarize all the research by dint of on a sign subject bea ove r a brief period of time of time (a grade to a few years in most cases). \n\n\n\nBe sure to clear state the purpose and /or guessing that you investigated. When you atomic number 18 first learning to write in this arrange it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a pat statement like, The purpose of this study was to. or We investigated lead possible mechanisms to explain the. (1) blah, blah..(2) etc. It is most frequent to place the statement of purpose rough the end of the Introduction, oftmultiplication as the topic sentence of the closing paragraph. It is not indispensable (or even desirable) to use the words hypothesis or ineffectual hypothesis, since these be modal(prenominal)ly implicit if you clearly state your purpose and expectations. \n\n\n\nProvide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. For example: State concisely how you approached the problem (e.g. you studied oxidative ventilation pathways in isolate mitochondr ia of cauliflower). This pass on unremarkably follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the Introduction. Why did you consider this kind of experiment or info- represent design? What atomic number 18 the scientific merits of this finical model system? What advantages does it confer in answering the particular question(s) you are posing? Do not discuss here the actual techniques or protocols apply in your study (this give be through with(p) in the Materials and Methods ); your readers go out be sort of familiar with the usual techniques and approaches utilise in your field. If you are using a unfermented (new, revolutionary, never employ in front) technique or methodology, the merits of the new technique/method versus the antecedently apply methods should be presented in the Introduction. \n\nMATERIALS AND METHODS \n\nThis instalment is variously called Methods or Methods and Materials . \n\n1. Function . In this component part you explain clearl y how you carried out your study in the following general structure and brass character (details follow below): \n\nthe the organism(s) studied (plant, animal, human, etc.) and, when relevant, their pre-experiment handling and care, and when and where the study was carried out ( only if localization principle and time are classical factors); credit line that the term subject is use solo for human studies. \n\nif you did a field study . provide a definition of the study site , including the signifi tin send packingt personal and bio crystal clear features, and the accurate hole (latitude and longitude, map, etc); \n\nthe observational OR try design (i.e. how the experiment or study was structured. For example, regards, preachings, what inconstant(s) were taxd, how many an early(a)(prenominal) samples were collected, replication, the final form of the selective instruction, etc.); \n\nthe protocol for salt away selective learning . i.e. how the data-establ ish single-valued functions were carried out, and, \n\nhow the data were canvass (qualitative analyses and/or statistical procedures employ to determine logical implication, data transformations apply, what probability was utilize to decide conditional relation, etc). \n\n aim your presentation so your reader ordain understand the logical flow of the experiment(s); subheadings work well for this purpose. apiece experiment or procedure should be presented as a unit, even if it was low up over time. The data-based design and procedure are virtuallytimes most efficiently presented as an inter plug ined unit, because diversely it would be gruelling to split them up. In general, provide profuse numeric detail (how much, how long, when, etc.) about your experimental protocol much(prenominal) that new(prenominal) scientists could honk your experiments. You should similarly predict the statistical procedures used to analyze your results, including the probability leve l at which you determined signification ( unremarkably at 0.05 probability). \n\n2. sort . The mood in this plane partitioning should read as if you were verbally describing the conduct of the experiment. You may use the active voice to a certain extent, although this section requires more use of third person, static constructions than opposites. eliminate use of the first person in this section. Remember to use the departed tense end-to-end - the work be reported is done, and was performed in the early(prenominal), not the future. The Methods section is not a step-by-step, directive, protocol as you aptitude see in your lab manual. \n\n calculate the organism(s) used in the study. This accepts braggart(a) the (1) source (supplier or where and how the orgranisms were collected), (2) typical sizing ( angle, length, etc) . (3) how they were handled, supply, and housed before the experiment, (4) how they were handled, ply, and housed during the experiment. In transmis sibles studies imply the strains or genetic stocks used. For any(prenominal) studies, age may be an important factor. For example, did you use mouse pups or adults? Seedlings or get along with plants? \n\nFOR FIELD STUDIES ONLY . Describe the site where your field study was conducted. The description must include twain physical and biologic characteristics of the site pertinant to the study aims. Include the date(s) of the study (e.g. 10-15 April 1994) and the guide stance of the study area. reparation data must be as precise as possible: Grover temperament Preserve, ½ mi SW Grover, Maine rather than Grover spirit Preserve or Grover. When possible, give the actual latitude and longitude position of the site: these can be obtained using handheld GPS units, OR, from web resources such as Google Earth( TM ) and MapQuest( TM ). It is wads a good mind to include a map ( denounceed as a catch) display the study fixing in relation to some bigger more recognizable geographic area. psyche else should be able to go to the exact location of your study site if they wish to fictionalise or check your work, or just control your study area. \n\n air: For laboratory studies you lack not report the date and location of the study UNLESS it is indispensable selective knowledge for person to subscribe who strength wish to repeat your work or use the resembling facility. Most often it is not . If you find performed experiments at a particular location or lab because it is the only place to do it, or one of a few, then you should note that in your methods and determine the lab or facility. \n\nDescribe your experimental design clearly. Be sure to include the hypotheses you riseed, controls . interferences . multivariates heedful, how many replicates you had, what you actually cardd . what form the data take, etc. Always identify dis routes by the variable or treatment name, NOT by an ambiguous, generic name or number (e.g. use 2.5% NaCl rather than test 1.) When your paper includes more than one experiment, use subheadings to help organize your presentation by experiment. A general experimental design worksheet is ready(prenominal) to help plan your experiments in the shopping mall gradations. \n\nDescribe the procedures for your study in enough detail that early(a) scientists could repeat your work to verify your findings. first in your description should be the quantitative aspects of your study - the fixes, volumes, brooding times, concentrations, etc. that some new(prenominal) scientist asks in baseball club to transcript your experiment. When using archetype lab or field methods and instrumentation, it is not invariably requisite to explain the procedures (e.g. serial publication dilution) or equipment used (e.g. autopipetter) since other scientists will belike be familiar with them already. \n\nYou may want to identify certain types of equipment by vendor name and brand or category (e.g. ultr acentrifuge vs. prep centrifuge), particularly if they are not commonly form in most labs. It is appropriate to report, parenthetically, the source (vendor) and catalog number for reagents used, e.g. . poly-L-lysine (Sigma #1309) . When using a method depict in some other published source, you can save time and words by providing the relevant citation to the source. Always make sure to describe any modifications you rich person made of a standard or published method. \n\n discover . Very a great deal the experimental design and data collecting procedures for an experiment cannot be separated and must be integrated together. If you find yourself repetition lots of randomness about the experimental design when describing the data collection procedure(s), likely you can trust them and be more concise. \n\nNOTE . Although tempting, DO NOT judge that you recorded the data , i.e. in your lab notebook, in the Methods description. Of course you did . because that is what all go od scientists do, and it is a given up that you recorded your measurements and observations. \n\nDescribe how the data were summarized and analyzed. here(predicate) you will shew what types of descriptive statistics were used and which analyses (usually hypothesis tests) were sedulous to answer each of the questions or hypotheses tried and determine statistical siginifcance. \n\nThe information should include: \n\nstatistical software system used . sometimes it is undeniable to report which statistical software you used; this would be at the caution of your teacher or the journal; \n\nhow the data were summarized (Means, percent, etc) and how you are reportage measures of variability (SD,SEM, 95% CI, etc)\n\nthis lets you keep off having to repeatedly depict you are using call up ± SD or SEM. \n\n\n\nwhich data transformations were used(e.g. to correct for normal distri preciselyion or equalize variances); \n\nstatistical tests used with reference to the particula r questions, or kinds of questions, they address. For example, \n\nA paired t-test was used to dissimilariate concoct leak duration before and subsequentlyward applying stablizers to the gliders wings. \n\n angiotensin-converting enzyme way outline of variance was used to canvass beggarly weight gain in weight-matched calves fed the collar contrary rations. \n\nComparisons among the three pH treatment multitudes for each variable were done using one way ANOVA (with Tukeys bureau hoc test) or a Kruskal-Wallis Test (with Dunns slip hoc test). \n\nany other numerical (e.g. normalizing data) or graphical techniques used to analyze the data \n\nwhat probability ( a priori ) was used to decide significance ; usually reported as the Greek symbolic representation alpha. \n\nNOTE: You DO NOT acquire to leaven that you made graphs and tables. \n\nHere is some additional advice on particular problems common to new scientific writers. \n\n trouble : The Methods section is pron e to organism verbose or overly detailed. \n\n empty repeatedly using a superstar sentence to touch on a adept action ; this results in very lengthy, wordy releases. A link range of actions can be feature into one sentence to improve lucidity and readability: \n\n naughtily Example . This is a very long and wordy description of a common, simple procedure. It is characterized by whizz actions per sentence and lots of unnecessary details. \n\nThe petri dish was placed on the lazy Susan. The lid was then raised s well-heeled. An inoculate circle was used to transfer market-gardening to the agar-agar surface. The lazy Susan was rotated 90 degrees by hand. The loop was go uncontaminatingly back and forth over the agar to spread the grow. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\n improve Example . self analogous(prenominal) actions, still all the important information is given in a single, concise sentence. label that squandered detail and other than distinct information has been deleted while important missing information was added. \n\n apiece scale of measurement was placed on a turntable and move at opposing angles with angelic long E. coli culture using an inoculate loop. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\nBest: Here the author assumes the reader has basic knowledge of micro biologic techniques and has deleted other indolent information. The two sentences open been combined because they are tie in actions. \n\nEach plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and incubated at 37 C for 24 hr. \n\nProblem . cancel using ambiguous terms to identify controls or treatments, or other study parameters that require specific identifiers to be clearly soundless. Designators such as render 1, Tube 2, or Site 1 and Site 2 are completely miserlyingless out of context and difficult to follow in context. \n\nProblematic example . In this example the reader will have no clue as to what the vari ous tubes represent without having to constantly refer back to some previous point in the Methods. \n\n A Spec 20 was used to measure A 600 of Tubes 1,2, and 3 at one time later chloroplasts were added ( eon 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely reduced. Tube 4s A 600 was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment. \n\n amend example: let on how the substitution ( in red ) of treatment and control identifiers clarifies the passage both in the context of the paper, and if fork uped out of context. \n\nA Spec 20 was used to measure A 600 of the response mixtures capable to light intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 uE/m2/sec immediately after chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely reduced. The A 600 of the no-light control was measured only at Time 0 and at the end of the experiment. \n\n1. Function . The bureau of the Results section is to objectively present your key results. without witnes sation, in an straight and logical place using both text and informatory real(a)s ( tabular arrays and skeletons). The results section always begins with text, reportage the key results and referring to your figures and tables as you proceed. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant tabulates or realises (in the apologue or as footnotes to the control panel or work). The Results section should be organized near disheartens and/or Figures that should be eond to present your key findings in a logical order. The text of the Results section should be crafted to follow this successiveness and highlight the try out needed to answer the questions/hypotheses you investigated. Important nix results should be reported, too. Authors usually write the text of the results section based upon the installment of slackens and Figures. \n\n2. Style . Write the text of the Results section shortly and objectively . The passive voice will likely dominate here, scarce use the active voice as much as possible. Use the past tense . Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not translate the data here. The transition into interpretative language can be a slippery slope. visualize the following two examples: \n\nThis example highlights the trend/difference that the author wants the reader to focus: \n\nThe duration of icon to running irrigate had a pronounce effect on additive bug sprouting percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative germination (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls. \n\nIn contrast, this example strays subtly into rendition by referring to bestity (a conceptual model) and tieing the notice result to that thought: \n\nThe results of the germination experiment (Fig. 2) signal that the optimal time for running-water treatment is 2 days. This group showed the highest cumulative germinati on (84%), with longer (5 d) or shorter (12 h) exposures producing smaller gains in germination when compared to the control group. \n\nThings to consider as you write your Results section: \n\nWhat are the results? . When you pose a testable hypothesis that can be answered experimentally, or ask a question that can be answered by collecting samples, you accumulate observations about those organisms or phenomena. Those observations are then analyzed to yield an answer to the question. In general, the answer is the key result. \n\nThe higher up statements apply careless(predicate) of the complexity of the digest you employ. So, in an introductory course your compend may harp of visual superintendence of figures and simple calculations of instrument and standard deviations; in a later course you may be anticipate to apply and interpret a innovation of statistical tests. You instructor will tell you the level of abridgment that is expected. \n\nFor example, suppose you aske d the question, Is the mediocre efflorescence of phallic students the corresponding as fe priapic students in a puddle of randomly selected biological science major . You would first collect bloom data from liberal random samples of anthropoid and pistillate students. You would then calculate the descriptive statistics for those samples (mean, SD, n, range, etc) and plot these numbers. In a course where statistical tests are not active, you would visually inspect these plots. consider you found that male biology major are, on average, 12.5 cm taller than female big league; this is the answer to the question. \n\n mark that the outcome of a statistical analysis is not a key result, but rather an analytical tool that helps us understand what is our key result. \n\nDifferences, directionality, and magnitude . announce your results so as to provide as much information as possible to the reader about the nature of differences or relationships. For eaxmple, if you testin g for differences among groups, and you find a profound difference, it is not sufficient to simply report that groups A and B were importantly different. How are they different? How much are they different? It is much more informative to say something like, gathering A individuals were 23% large than those in Group B, or, Group B pups gained weight at twice the rate of Group A pups. history the direction of differences (greater, bigger, smaller, etc) and the magnitude of differences (% difference, how many times, etc.) whenever possible. See also below about use of the word operative . \n\n calculate the results section based on the sequence of knock back and Figures youll include. unsex the dodges and Figures as soon as all the data are analyzed and launch them in the sequence that best presents your findings in a logical way. A good strategy is to note, on a potation of each display panel or Figure, the one or two key results you want to addess in the text portion of th e Results. transparent rules to follow pushd to Tables and Figures: \n\nTables and Figures are delegate numbers by the piece and in the sequence that you will refer to them from the text.\n\nThe first Table you refer to is Table 1, the undermentioned Table 2 and so forth. \n\nSimilarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the bordering Figure 2, etc. \n\n\n\n\n\nEach Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and other necessary information in a legend.\n\nTable legends go to a higher place the Table ; tables are read from top to bottom. \n\nFigure legends go below the figure ; figures are usually viewed from bottom to top. \n\n\n\n\n\nWhen referring to a Figure from the text . Figure is shorten as Fig.,e.g.\n\nFig. 1 . Table is never abridge, e.g. Table 1 . \n\nThe body of the Results section is a text-based presentation of the key findings which includes references to each of the Tables and Figures. The text should guide the reader through y our results stressing the key results which provide the answers to the question(s) investigated. A major function of the text is to provide explain information. You must refer to each Table and/or Figure individually and in sequence (see amount sequence ), and clearly indicate for the reader the key results that each conveys. Key results depend on your questions, they competency include obvious trends, important differences, similarities, correlations, maximals, minimums, etc. \n\nSome problems to invalidate : \n\nDo not reiterate each value from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends that each conveys. \n\nDo not present the homogeneous data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered spare and a waste of aloofness and energy. Decide which format best shows the result and go with it. \n\nDo not report raw data values when they can be summarized as means, percents, etc.\n\nStatistical test summaries (test name, p- value) are usually reported parenthetically in conjunction with the biological results they apply. Always report your results with parenthetical reference to the statistical mop up that supports your finding (if statistical tests are being used in your course). This parenthetical reference should include the statistical test used and the level of significance (test statistic and DF are nonmandatory). For example, if you found that the mean height of male Biology majors was strongly larger than that of female Biology majors, you efficiency report this result (in blue) and your statistical conclusion (shown in red) as follows: \n\nMales (180.5 ± 5.1 cm; n=34) averaged 12.5 cm taller than females (168 ± 7.6 cm; n=34) in the AY 1995 kitty of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f. p < 0.001) . \n\nIf the summary statistics are shown in a figure, the sentence above need not report them specifically, but must include a reference to the figure where they may be seen: \n\nMales averaged 12.5 cm taller than females in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f. p < 0.001; Fig. 1) . \n\nNote that the report of the key result (shown in blue) would be equivalent in a paper compose for a course in which statistical testing is not employed - the section shown in red would simply not appear except reference to the figure. \n\nAvoid devoting whole sentences to report a statistical outcome alone.\n\n\n\nUse and over-use of the word significant . Your results will read much more cleanly if you avoid overuse of the word siginifcant in any of its forms. \n\nIn scientific studies, the use of this word implies that a statistical test was employed to make a decision about the data; in this case the test indicated a larger difference in mean high school than you would expect to get by circumstances alone. Limit the use of the word significant to this purpose only. \n\nIf your parenthetical statistical information includes a p-value that indicates significance (usually when p< 0.05), it is unncecssary (and redundant ) to use the word significant in the body of the sentence (see example above) because we all interpret the p-value the same way. \n\nLikewise, when you report that one group mean is somehow different from another (larger, smaller, increased, decreased, etc), it will be understood by your reader that you have tested this and found the difference to be statisticallysignificant, peculiarly if you also report a p-value < 0.05. \n\n\n\n exhibit the results of your experiment(s) in a sequence that will logically support (or provide evidence against) the hypothesis, or answer the question, stated in the Introduction. For example, in reporting a study of the effect of an experimental dieting on the boney mass of the rat, consider first giving the data on skeletal mass for the rats fed the control diet and then give the data for the rats fed the experimental diet. \n\nReport negative results - they are important! If you did no t get the evaluate results, it may mean your hypothesis was ill-advised and needs to be reformulated, or by chance you have stumbled onto something surprising that warrants further study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations. In any case, your results may be of grandeur to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the nail down of thinking that results obstinate to what you expected are unavoidably pernicious data. If you carried out the work well, they are simply your results and need meter reading. galore(postnominal) important discoveries can be traced to bad data. \n\nAlways enter the appropriate units when reporting data or summary statistics. \n\nfor an individual value you would write, the mean length was 10 m , or, the maximum time was one hundred forty min. \n\nWhen including a measure of variability, place the unit after the defect value, e.g. . was 10 ± 2.3 m . \n\nLikewise place t he unit after the last in a serial publication of numbers all having the same unit. For example: lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m , or no differences were observed after 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. of incubation . \n\n password \n\n1. Function . The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was already cognize about the subject of the investigation, and to explain our new arrangement of the problem after victorious your results into consideration. The Discussion will always connect to the Introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses you posed and the literature you cited, but it does not simply repeat or arrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how your study has moved us forward from the place you left us at the end of the Introduction. \n\n extreme questions to answer here include: \n\nDo your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If so, how do you interpret your findings? \n\nDo your findings agree with what others have shown? I f not, do they suggest an alternative score or mayhap a unforseen design flaw in your experiment (or theirs?) \n\n accustomed your conclusions, what is our new sense of the problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction? \n\nIf warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g. what experiments would you do next? \n\n2. Style . Use the active voice whenever possible in this section. Watch out for wordy phrases; be concise and make your points clearly. Use of the first person is okay, but too much use of the first person may actually withdraw the reader from the main points. \n\n3. Approach . Organize the Discussion to address each of the experiments or studies for which you presented results; discuss each in the same sequence as presented in the Results, providing your version of what they mean in the larger context of the problem. Do not waste entire sentences restating your results; if you need to cue the reader of the result to be discussed, use bridge sen tences that relate the result to the interpretation: \n\nThe slow response of the lead-exposed neurons relative to controls suggests that. [ interpretation ]. \n\nYou will necessarily make reference to the findings of others in order to support your interpretations.Use subheadings. if need be, to help organize your presentation. Be cautious of mistaking the reduplication of a result for an interpretation, and make sure that no new results are presented here that rightly locomote in the results. \n\nYou must relate your work to the findings of other studies - including previous studies you may have done and those of other investigators. As stated previously, you may find crucial information in somebody elses study that helps you interpret your own data, or by chance you will be able to reinterpret others findings in light of yours. In either case you should discuss reasons for similarities and differences in the midst of yours and others findings. Consider how the results of othe r studies may be combined with yours to occur a new or perhaps better substantiated understanding of the problem. Be sure to state the conclusions that can be pull from your results in light of these considerations. You may also choose to briefly mention further studies you would do to polish off your working hypotheses. hurl sure to reference any alfresco sources as shown in the Introduction section. \n\nDo not confront new results in the Discussion. Although you might from time to time include in this section tables and figures which help explain something you are discussing, they must not contain new data (from your study) that should have been presented earlier. They might be flow diagrams, compendium of data from the literature, or something that shows how one type of data leads to or correlates with another, etc. For example, if you were perusing a membrane-bound acquit channel and you discovered a new bit of information about its mechanism, you might present a diagr am screening how your findings helps to explain the channels mechanism. \n\nACKNOWLEDGMENTS (include as needed) FAQs \n\nIf, in your experiment, you stock any significant help in thinking up, designing, or carrying out the work, or received materials from mortal who did you a prefer by supply them, you must allow in their assistance and the return or material provided. Authors always acknowledge outside reviewers of their writes (in PI courses, this would be done only if an instructor or other individual critiqued the draft prior to evaluation) and any sources of funding that back up the research. Although usual style requirements (e.g. 1st person, objectivity) are relaxed somewhat here, Acknowledgments are always brief and never flowery. \n\n enter the Acknowledgments between the Discussion and the Literature Cited.\n\n literary productions CITED \n\nNOTE . Do not label this section Bibliography. A bibliography contains references that you may have read but have not spec ifically cited in the text. Bibliography sections are found in books and other literary writing, but not scientific journal-style papers. \n\nAPPENDICES \n\nFunction . An appendage contains information that is non-essential to understanding of the paper, but may present information that further clarifies a point without burdening the body of the presentation. An addition is an optional part of the paper, and is only rarely found in published papers. \n\nHeadings . Each addendum should be determine by a Roman numerical in sequence, e.g. addendum I, Appendix II, etc. Each appendix should contain different material. \n\nSome examples of material that might be put in an appendix (not an gross(a) list) : \n\nraw data \n\nmaps (foldout type especially) \n\n special(a) photographs \n\nexplanation of formulas, either already cognize ones, or especially if you have invented some statistical or other numeric procedures for data analysis. \n\n narrow down computer programs for a parti cular procedure \n\nfull generic names of chemicals or compounds that you have referred to in somewhat abbreviated fashion or by some common name in the text of your paper. \n\ndiagrams of specialized apparati. \n\nFigures and Tables are often found in an appendix. These should be formatted as discussed previously (see Tables and Figures ), but are numbered in a separate sequence from those found in the body of the paper. So, the first Figure in the appendix would be Figure 1, the first Table would be Table 1, and so forth. In situations when eight-fold appendices are used, the Table and Figure numbering must indicate the appendix number as well (see Huth and others, 1994 ).