Agriculture Revolution Essay

The agriculture revolution occurred in the Eighteenth Century. It was the age of new inventions and methods which caused agriculture to boom and end the long problem of famine. The agriculture revolution also caused social and economic consequences. What are some of these methods, inventions an also, the downfalls and consequences of the agriculture revolution? In the eighteenth century it was important to improve agriculture to feed the rapidly increasing population. This meant they needed to make inventions to grow more food at a more rapid rate. This is about the time when they discovered crop rotation, which is rotationing the crop to refurnish the nutrients in the soil by switching the crops that used the nutrients in the soil with the ones that replaced it. This system gave farmers the opportunity to farm all their land at all times, instead of having to let some land set for a long period of time. Some of the important crops were peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, clovers and grasses. Other inventions like the seed drill, threshing machine, along with the enclosure of fields helped produce enough food for the growing population. The enclosure of fields was a new invention, which took a farmers scattered land and put it together in fenced in fields to farm a lot smarter and more efficiently. Not all the people of the eighteenth century went to farming in this new style, they were used to the traditional style and preferred to continue farming that way. The Low Countries and England were the main people that used crop rotation. New crops made ideal feed for animals, which meant farmers could increase their herds, which ultimately meant more meat and better diets for all. Some downfalls of the agriculture revolution meant that if a farmer wanted to experiment with new methods they would have to get all landowners in the village to agree. Enclosure didn’t seem to help the poor rural families; this meant that they couldn’t do the things they traditionally did. They liked using common pastureland to graze stock, forests and marshlands for firewood and berries, therefore the poor highly opposed the idea of enclosure and created allies with the wealthy land owners. The wealthy land owners were also against enclosure, because it required large risks and investments? The agricultural revolution had a very big impact on women; the new inventions and the machinery were much harder for them to handle. This meant women had to find another role in society, working at Cottage Industries or as Domestic Servants. The agriculture revolution was the start of a great stepping stone. The new inventions like Crop Rotation and Enclosure helped form the age we live in today. There were ups and downs to the agricultural revolution, as there is in any new ideas that are trying to be implemented. The revolution ended famine, the methods used caused distress with the poor and even the wealthy at times; they also wanted to keep the traditional ways of farming. The transformation and experimentation of new crops and systems of crop rotation was not completed until the nineteenth century. Agricultural revolution allowed farms to be more compact and increased investments. The agricultural revolution was an essential prelude to the Industrial Revolution.

Honor killingskillings Essay

It is shocking to see that in today’s era when education and awareness has become the most integral part of human and societal development. Moreover, women empowerment and their role in every walk of lives have changed over the period of time. There are still such hideous practices that are being done in some parts of the world under the disguised name of honor killing and Pakistan being one of the countries which holds the highest rates of honor killings in the world. Karo Kari another name for ignorance. This name originated from the rural areas of interior sindh. It is being practiced in areas of Sindh such as Jacocabad, Sukkur, Khairpur, and Larkana along with other areas of Sindh and some places in Punjab. THE TRIBAL SYSTEM Pakistani society is rich with multiple cultures and ethnic backgrounds. Each of these cultures and people from diversified ethnic groups come from distinct backgrounds and live together hence they have their own traditions and customs which they have been following since years. In the rural areas of Pakistan the tribal system still exists such as areas in the interior sindh. This is where the ‘jirga’ system or commonly known as the â€Å"panchayat† system exists. Under this system the rich and the influential class of the village tends to form a committee and takes decisions on behalf of everyone and the decision given by this group is bound to be accepted by every member of the society. They have their own way of judging the case and passing a verdict on that, they take their own time, they think over it and give the date for the decision. The lower and the poor working class is suppressed under this system as they don’t have any say in it and obliged to follow it. KARO KARI Karo Kari is practiced when the women of the family has brought dishonor to the family name by any means. This could be if the woman has any illicit relations with any man, or an extra marital affair, she could be a rape victim or even if she wants to get married to somebody of her choice she is brutally killed by one of the family members themselves in order to bring back the lost glory and name of the family. It is not just this that an innocent women can be categorized as Kari and killed it is also when the family and the brothers want to keep the property and resolve land disputes she becomes a victim of this murder, for example if a man owes some money to a person and that creditor comes to his place in order to collect the money to his place from another village and stays over night. The person who owes the money would kill his wife next day and declare her a Kari so that he doesn’t have to pay the money . in this way the creditor would choose to leave without taking the money rather being declared as Karo and being killed. Similarly a man can be declared a Karo even if he doesn’t have any kind of affair with a woman but he has any form of dispute with some other tribe and he’ll be killed under the name of honor killing. These killings tend to have the most inhuman ways of torturing some one and sentencing them to death. They will bury the girl alive recently in one of the states of Sindh, Khairpur; a girl was thrown in front of dogs to be torn apart as an act of hour killing. THE RISE IN THE NUMBER OF KILLINGS It is very depressing to see that the trend in the number of killings that has taken place due to this has increased over the years instead of dropping. It is estimated that over the last six years in Pakistan the number of deaths caused by Karo Kari have been more than six thousand which included around 800 men too, so it is not just women who fall for this, there are men too but their number is relatively lower than the women. Different societies have different people and thinking therefore they believe what they are doing is the right way but this practice of suppressing the right of women and taking her right to live is a murderous crime and contradictory to the teachings of Islam. It is that barbaric evil of the society that has to be eliminated completely. Even worse is the fact that the rich and influential class tends to get away with this practice while the poor are helpless and they become the victim. THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT As far as the government and other NGO’s are concerned then in the year 2004 there was an amendment made in the constitution which declared honor killings such as Karo Kari as equal to murder however, this amendment never came into practice because under another clause of the constitution it was stated that the accused can get away with the crime if one gets the consent of the family and in this case of Karo Kari the victims family itself is the one who are doing it therefore nobody can be put to trial as they don’t appear in the police station. It is the government’s duty to look into this matter and they should have made an alteration in the other amendment so that this brutal practice can be put to an end, however no concrete step has been taken to curb this. KARO KARI IS UNJUSTIFIABLE Karo Kari is a cultural shock to anyone who belongs to a civilized, developed and educated society and would condemn it. it is a murder not a punishment there could be any other ways of punishing one for their doings but such act is not justifiable on any grounds, it is barbaric and takes away the freedom of speech and expression. The dominating men in the â€Å"jirga† system have curbed the rights of women in these rural areas. It is actually the sardars who are the influential â€Å"waderas† who tend to encourage this practice as this increases their prestige in the society ,over that they get a compensation from the â€Å"jirga† too. Karo Kari is another name for ignorance, Islam has already restricted the Muslims and it has set punishments for the victim therefore any other act that is being practiced under its name is simply ignorance. In Islam having an illicit sexual relationship is condemned and the accused is whipped not subject to killing. How can one justify the killing of a woman who has been subjected to rape? By declaring such a women Kari and killing her society is depriving the soul from getting justice and instead of taking her out of that trauma one is putting an end to her life. Why are women accused more then men in Karo Kari, it is not that men are more faithful then women it is just that women are weak in these areas and men are strong that is why they are able to get away with it. These â€Å"jirga† have no right to take away the liberty to live from such people; they should work for the benefits of the society by coming to a conclusion on the basis of â€Å"shariah† not merely stay ignorant. Women are not property that their life is kept at stake to resolve land disputes. Moreover the killing is done in the most inhuman way. To bury some one alive, throwing her in front of dogs or to burn her alive is unjustifiable. Such practices were there in the olden days when there was no education and no awareness but it’s shocking that it still exists in our society and nobody has done anything to put an end to it. It is unjustly exploited by the feudal land lords and the elite class of the village who use Karo Kari to resolve their personal matters. One such incident took place when a native of interior Sindh came home after years of hard work from Dubai and brought money back home to start some form of business in his native land. He came in the eyes of the feudal lord due to his money and business. The opportunist wanted to trap him in the case of Karo Kari and he got the opportunity when the man by mistake prayed on the grave of some other women, thinking it to be his wife’s grave. The feudal lord took advantage of this and declared him a Karo; the man not only paid 15million to the land lord in order to save his life, he was kicked out of his home land and his business was taken away. There are many such instances when the influential people of the â€Å"panchayat† system tend to trap others for their own good and they use this practice of Karo Kari as a tool in order to get away with it. It is unfortunate to see that such murders are given the name of honor killings. THE URBAN AREAS VERSUS THE RURAL SETUP The tragedy with these women lies in the fact that they are born in such a set up and society where they are considered as a burden on the family. Girls still cannot compete with the boys and neither can they express their opinion. Sons are preferred over daughters. Daughters are not encouraged to go to school or get exposed to the outside world. Therefore their thinking is confined to just one place. They are expected to do what they are asked for and nothing else. Lives in the urban areas are an extreme opposite view of this. If one may not go far and compare with places in the similar province such as Karachi. The region is developed and modern. It is a cosmopolitan city and comprises of people from all caste, color and creed and they all share different cultures and languages and live altogether. Women here are educated and empowered like never before. They are independent, focused and know exactly what they want out of their lives. They are working as well as having a family and they are doing well in every walk of lives and competing with men. They take their own decisions. The living and culture of these societies varies from the rural areas actually there is no comparison. The two societies share the same religion and language yet again there are differences of opinions and thinking process. The urban life of Karachi is mush more modern and liberal as they are adopting the western culture in their society. Apart from the right to go out or make money, women can dress up the way she wants, socialize, make friends and do whatever she wants to. Girls are actually encouraged to go and study in co education and moreover sent abroad for further education and their families and relatives support them in this. In these urban areas there is no such thing as ‘jirga system. Life is different here justice drawn through legal courts and with the help of police. A rape victim can go to the police and lodge a complaint against the culprit and she has the right to live and fight for her right and nobody can stop her. All kinds of disputes pertaining to property, ownership, marriage or anything are resolved through legal procedure in the courts. After the age of eighteen years the girl and the boy have the right to choose her own life partner and get married to him legally. The concept of honor killings does not exist in these urban areas. This society has its own set of evils and drawbacks such as poverty, corruption, unemployment, terrorism. Women in urban areas are as influential and resourceful then men that they can not be dominated unjustly. Tribal system is a sign of backwardness and illiteracy and refusal to accept this fact is what is leading to what it is today. These two societies have completely different set of values, cultures, traditions and norms that they follow. The living and lifestyles of these people are also different. In the urban areas there are also powerful and influential people who tend to subjugate the weaker class, however that is done in entire different way where the free will of everyone is not included like the â€Å"jirga† system where everyone is bound to listen to them? Life in the urban society has made men and women strong and independent that’s the way they are brought up, whereas the tribal system has put them in a much weaker stand. The practice of Karo Kari is a social issue and it can not come to an end until there is no change in the social structure of the society and in order to change to be there, there has to be awareness and education and the powers of the rich and the land lords needs to be curbed so that they don’t exploit the common man who work for them as their slaves. It should not be encouraged but since it has been following from years and the people in the villages associate it as a matter of prestige and honor that is why is strongly accepted and being followed. It is not being used in villages to make easy money. The men’s of the family tend to kill their own daughter, wives and sisters ruthlessly in order to make easy money. it is actually depressing to see this that in today’s time such type of unjust ways of killings are taking place by the wrongdoers and they are justified on the basis of honor killings. 60% cases of the cases of Karo Kari are reported to be where the accused were innocent and yet killed. Every society and every religion have their own set of limitations which are known to all. Yet again those are not being followed that doesn’t mean that one can make use of it and exploit it on the basis of â€Å"ghayrat†. There are officials in the government who haven’t done anything to stop this practice because they feel it is not wrong, not only men, there are women who are seen in the political setup who have the ability to do something, yet are not doing anything. There are different cultures and people living in one country and each of them have their own problems and drawbacks. Whereas in one province one woman can get married by giving a divorce to her husband and in the other society she is buried alive if she has her own opinion. This tribal system has gone so worse that the people who live under it fear their death and therefore few try to escape and the ones who have money give that and get away with everything. Even if people try to escape these killings the villagers look for them and they kill them whenever and wherever they find them. Education is the key in all this that can reduce the gap and disparity among the two societies and give everyone the freedom to live as an independent citizen. ohou Key words Honor killings in Pakistan Karo Kari and the tribal system Women empowerment

External and Internal Environments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

External and Internal Environments - Essay Example The company is engaged in the business of running retail stores that come in various formats like discount stores, supercentres, neighborhood markets, etc. worldwide. The products of the company are also offered through different e-commerce websites that includes samsclub.com and walmart.com. Wide range of merchandise products are also offered by the company which comes at every day low price (EDLP). The company's operation is divided into three broad segments namely, Wal-Mart International, Wal-Mart US and Sam's Club. External Environment Analysis The external environment in which Wal-Mart operates its business activities can have a significant impact on its growth and sustainability in future. The various external environmental factors that can have an impact on the company and its corresponding retail industry can be better understood through the PESTEL analysis. It stands for Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal factors concerning the organization . Of all these six environmental factors the Economical and Social factors can have a significant impact on the organization and the industry in which operates its business. A detailed analysis of these two factors has been discussed below: a. Economical Factors: United States is considered to be one of the largest economies of the world with gross domestic product (GDP) of around $15.09 trillion and per capita GDP of around $49,000 in 2011 (CIA, 2012a). The recent global financial crisis (GFC) had a significant negative impact on the US economy but it recovered well. The US retail savings which also suffered a setback due to GFC is expected to have a steady growth. The disposable income of the US population is also expected to increase. All these factors can have a positive impact on Wal-Mart in increasing its sales in the forthcoming years through its low and competitive pricing strategy. b. Social Factors: The increasing healthcare costs and the ever increasing aging population o f US are major concerns for the country at present. Another major social concern for the country is the rising inequality of income. United States has been ranked 42 out of 136 nations with respect to the income equality parameter as evaluated by the Gini coefficient (CIA, 2012b). Although US economy as a whole has experienced consistent growth it has not translated into redistributive social policies and increased wages. All these social concerns can have a significant impact on Wal-Mart because it employs large number of laborers and the wages issues associated with them can hamper the future growth prospect of the company. Industry Analysis Porter’s five forces model helps an organization to assess the competitive forces which exists within the industry (Hill & Jones, 2012, p. 49). The forces which help out in the process are named as a) threat of new entrants, b) threat from the substitute products or services, c) bargaining power of the suppliers, d) bargaining power of the consumers and finally e) competition within the industry (Society for Human Resource Management (U.S.), 2006, p.38-39). Out of the five competitive forces mentioned above two most important forces that can have a significant impact on Wal-Mart has been described below: a. Buyer Power: The retailers that operate in the retail industry vary greatly in their size with respect to companies like Wal-Mart who are having large chain of supermarkets

Consumer Bahviour class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Consumer Bahviour class - Essay Example xists at IKEA is the fact that the consumers will have a wide range of products that they should choose from and that become a problem (Youngme 8).The store has many products that are attractive and that will make it difficult for the consumer to choose from the wide variety. The other consumer behavior problem that exists is the availability of information that regards the products that are found in an IKEA store (Youngme 9). The other problem that is available is the lack of a platform that can be used by the consumers in the comparison of the products found in the store and their competitors (Youngme 13).The other consumer behavior problem that is considered is the availability of quality services that any store provides (Youngme 9). As a manager at IKEA, it would be good to place products of the same kind and those that are complimentary in one area. That will help solve the issue of not being able to choose from a wide variety of products that are available in the store. As a manager, it would be proper to give a wide detail of information about the products that are found in the store. That will help in resolving the consumer behavior problem that is in place. Consumers usually prefer searching information on the products that are availability. That includes the durability of the products and the way in which the products can be used. Therefore, the management should provide information on the products by physical training and provide information on the products via the stores website. The information search analysis will involve both external and internal search. The internal search will involve the recognition of the items that the consumer actually wants while the external search involves using information available about the items. The information may be available from publications and friends. In the case of IKEA, the consumers will consider if the furniture that they choose will be satisfactory according to their desires and according to the social

Bus270 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bus270 - Assignment Example Today’s approach is hands free, the leader leaves the employee to be creative, inclusiveness is taken as important and everyone’s act is supported. What can we do to help rather than what is this. 3. Connection of the organization and the environment takes place through understanding the customer more than the competitor. Increasing sales will rely on how well the business caters for the customer needs rather than how they combat competition. It is important to understand what is changing through the weekly business plan review and ensuring all the data and research is used to change the policy in relation to the changing environment. 4. A) Ford as a global organization has a single plan that is global and that is built on the mission, One Ford Plan that is achieved through the One Ford Team. The team is working for more than themselves and they have stayed focused on their work. This has ensured that they are always global on the needs of the customers. The efforts are only made global through a team belief that is engaged in the mission of One Ford Plan. B) Business plan review is a weekly meeting that involves all the leaders who come together to look at the world environment changes. It looks at the risks and the opportunities in the current market environment. It provides a platform from which the financial statement data is analyzed and changes can be made depending on how the research will have provided as a proper fact that ought to be changed. 5. a) The company understands that the future is not bright with the increasing price of energy, especially in terms of petroleum and they believe that it would become difficult for the product to be brought to the market, and the society has decided to go for the alternative sources of energy. The company has also decided to create vehicles that range from gasoline consumers to the diesel user and the natural gases. b) Characteristic of self led individual refers to

Pleas read the artical and answer qestion 5 with 6 steps. the answers Essay

Pleas read the artical and answer qestion 5 with 6 steps. the answers should be short and to the point - Essay Example The school is allowed to removal of the IDEA, Section 504, and ADA claims because the parents did not exhaust administrative remedies under IDEA. One issue raised by the trial court is that the exhaustion requirements of the IDEA applied in equal measure to the other claims since the Section 504 and ADA claims are associated with injuries that could be sought redress to under the IDEA. The issue put forward by the parents is that their complaint was with the refusal of the school to provide Section 504 services, to which the court noted that â€Å"a parent may not circumvent the administrative procedures of IDEA by voluntarily revoking approval under IDEA, and afterwards recast their complaints under Section 504 and the ADA. The trial court’s decision was that the parent are not capable of revoking assent to services under IDEA, and then proceed to demand that the school make available Section 504 services instead. Therefore, the school was not under any legal obligation to provide services. The reasoning behind this decision was influenced by a citation from a Letter of McKethan issued by OCR. By refusing services developed under IDEA, the parents effectively rejected services under Section 504. Hence, the revocation of services by the parents under IDEA was equivalent to revocation under Section 504 and the

Why Divorce Rates Increased Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why Divorce Rates Increased - Essay Example Coming to South American countries, divorce rates increased from 0.21 to 0.7 in Mexico, from 0.17 to 1.9 in Costa Rica, from 0.36 to 1.2 in Trinidad, and from 0.28 to 0.7 in Jamaica (Lamb, 196). These figures show that this phenomenon is some what universal. Lamb has listed the reasons for this social change as â€Å"delays in age at first marriage, rising non-marital cohabitation, and increases in non-marital births† which are again caused by â€Å"women’s growing education and economic independence, a decline in religious influence, an increase in individualism, and a corresponding decline in communalism (196). The risk factors that bring about a divorce as identified by researchers also constitute a very long list (qtd. In Lamb, 197). This list includes, factors like: Marrying a teenager, being poor, having a low level of education, having no children from the marriage, bringing children from a previous union into the marriage, being in a second or higher order marriage, cohabiting prior to marriage, having no religious affiliation, not sharing the same religion with one’s spouse, living in an urban area, and growing up in a household without two continuously married parents (Lamb, 197-198). Other findings of social science research in this regard have suggested that education has a positive association with the risk of divorce (qtd. by Lamb, 198). Many predictive factors of divorce have been identified as well. These comprise of â€Å"frequent arguments, repeated expressions of negative affect, domestic violence, infidelity, and low levels of emotional support, commitment, love and trust between spouses (qtd. by Lamb, 198). When we look into the consequences of divorce on adults, many findings are there to suggest that divorced individuals are in general having lower psychological health and physical health as compared to continuously married people (qtd. by Lamb, 199). This phenomenon can be

Outline marketing plan for the next year for Atlantic Quench 02133 Essay

Outline marketing plan for the next year for Atlantic Quench 02133 - Essay Example With the changing demography, the level of health consciousness has paved the way for new flavoured beverages. The beverage industry has kept on increasing in respect to the number of players and the target market. The demographic change has led the beverage industry to introduce new products. The aging population in US and other economies have forced companies to continuously innovate their marketing activities vis-a-vis product, price, place, promotion and communication. Atlantic Quench Cranberries Inc is US based company that produces juice and non juice products for more than 80 years. It is an agricultural supportive, which is owned by 46 grapefruit and 630 cranberry farmers. It has the largest market share in the fruit juice industry in US. It not only sells juice and non juice products in the US market, but it has also extended its operations in UK. Under juice product, it mainly sells under the brand name juice max, grab n go, cranberry original juice, etc and under non juice products it sells as new conserve, cranberry sauces, etc. The political situation of Europe is a very stable one. It follows a democratically elected system of government (Market Line., 2013). The political system of UK is embedded in its deep system of political stability that is given by the democratically elected government. After the world wars the UK has grown considerably over the years followed by a stable political system. For Atlantic quench this is a good sign as it provides a favourable investment climate for the company. Per capita GDP of the UK is high and the investment climate of UK is favourable. However in the recent years the country is suffering from high debt and fiscal deficit. There was negative GDP growth in the year 2009 that would result in the not-purchasing of any this that the consumers did not consider essential (West, Ford and Ibrahim, 2015). UK has also witnessed high rates

Incidnets In The Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs Essay

Incidnets In The Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs - Essay Example Due to the efforts of Jacobs’ autobiographer Yellin and the discovery of Jacobs’ letters with many abolitionists, the authenticity was established. Harriet Jacobs was not a proficient writer indeed. However, she had a story to tell and she worked at developing writing skills. In already 1858 she finished the manuscript of the book which was further proofread by L. Maria Child and published. The first sentence of the narrative makes us aware that the story is autobiographic. The personal story of the author served the basis of Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. The Jacobs’s autobiographer Yellin confirmed that events of the Incidents by Linda Brent coincided with the key events of Jacobs’ life - the suggestion earlier voiced by Amy Post. The facts of life of the main character and the author are identical and one can easily track them. The similarities of Linda’s early childhood in the Incidents and Harriet Jacobs’s childhood are the death of the mother which makes her aware of the slave status, then the death of the mistress who cared for her, her purchase by the mistress’ sister for five-year-old daughter, the death of the father, etc. Later when Linda Brent’s mistress was married to Dr. Flint (Dr. James Norcom in real life), Linda was haunted by him. She desperately tried to escape Dr. Flint and entered intimate relations with Samuel Tredwell Sawyer (Mr. Sands in the narrative) and bore two children for him - Joseph and Louisa Matilda (Ben and Ellen in the narrative). The other vivid biographic feature depicted in the story is 7 years ‘imprisonment’ of Linda in her grandmother’s attic to avoid abuse of Dr. Flint. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is fundamental work which changed the traditional view about the slave narrative which had been primarily written by male authors. This shift allowed emphasizing issues of family, womanhood and sexuality in a different light. The standards of womanhood which

The Morally Blasphemous Essay Example for Free

The Morally Blasphemous Essay In the following essay, I will argue that modern day suicide bombers are not morally blameless by Camus’s standards. To be morally blameless in Camus’s terms, modern day suicide bombers must absolutely meet two vital criteria. For suicide bombers to be morally blameless, Camus stresses that these terrorists must have a just cause, and secondly meet the qualifications of proportional atonement. Since some suicide bombers have a just cause, but all do not meet the criteria of proportional atonement, they are therefore considered not to be morally blameless by Camus’s standards. In the following paragraphs, I will lay out the framework and foundations to explain why the majority of suicide bombers do not meet the criteria for proportional atonement. Secondly I will attempt to demonstrate how some of the terrorism committed by these people, may be in the name of justice but then again look at fluent counter arguments that point out that suicide bombers are breaking one of Camus’s important deontological constraints. Proportional atonement for Camus is the ability for any terrorist , and in this case Kaliayev, to reflect on his actions after having committed the act of violence against the Grand Duke. The terrorist or suicide bomber must then have the courage to pay the ultimate price with their own life. In Kaliayev’s case, this means to refuse any form of acquittal and to suffer the punishment. For Camus, paying with one’s life is the highest price an individual can pay. Therefore a terrorist willing to go through with his or her plan must understand that by doing so, he or she is acting under the pretenses that they are giving up everything. Those who provide an argument in saying that terrorists do pay a proportional price, bring forth the idea that by blowing themselves up, suicide bombers are clearly paying with their life, and are therefore accepting to pay the maximum price. Whether a terrorist like Kaliayev, kills one person by blowing up the Grand Duke’s carriage, or whether it be the back bombers who blew themselves up killing 191 Spaniards in Madrid, these terrorists are paying the ultimate price for what they see as committing an act of justice. The number of people you kill, be it one or ten thousand is irrelevant as a person only has one life to give since we cannot kill ourselves over. For those who hold this true, what they are failing to realize is that suicide bombers, although they are paying the ultimate price, are often celebrated as heroes back at home and monetary compensation is often rewarded to the family members of the suicide bombers. Therefore, you might say that terrorist do pay with their lives but minus the amount of post-mortem social prestige. In his book Driven to Death, author Ariel Merari discusses the effect that monetary compensation has on helping to recruit suicide bombers. In his book, Merari states that families receive money from many sources, including local charities as well as terrorist recruiter groups like modern day Al-Qaeda and the Palestinian authority. In Iraq, before the fall of Sadam Hussein’s regime, his government would give between $20,000 and $25,000 to the families of su icide bombers, often given the goal to blow up and kill American troops or Iranian Shi’ites. 1 1Merari, Ariel. A Controlled Study of Would Be Suicides. Driven to Death. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. 132-33. Print This brings me to my next point which discuses the power of what I call selfish reasoning. Another method is to try and compare modern day suicide bombers, (which we unfortunately have to generalize as Muslims) to Kaliayev. In my estimation suicide bombers blow themselves up for much ore selfish reasons. This would include the Islamic tradition of securing a place in paradise. Thus it could be far fetched to say that their death is an act of repentance but rather a quick way of going right up to paradise. Of course we do have to recognize that this may not be true for all suicide bombers. Unlike these suicide bombers Kaliayev is content to die for his cause, which is for securing a better life for the Russian people. Throughout the play there is absolutely no talk of heaven or paradise but rather the act of death as merely the end. During one of his arguments with Stepan, Kailayev notes that he joined the revolution because he loves life and is willing to give it up for the group’s cause. 2 The final foundation I wish to discuss is this idea of repentance. After having killed the Grand Duke, Kaliayev was forced to go on living in prison for a short amount of time, forced to focus and repent on his action. Even for the short amount of time, Kaliayev was forced to live knowing that he was a murderer and knowing of his dirty blood stained hands. Unlike Kaliayev who is forced to reconcile and repent, suicide bombers blow themselves up immediately, removing any bit of suffering, self reflection and pity from their agenda. This of course brings me to the next idea, which will focus on Camus’s first argument of being able to fulfill la just cause. 2Camus, Albert. The Just Assasins. Trans. Stuart Gilbert. Caligula And 3 Other Plays. New York: Random House, 1958. 243. Print. To say whether or not suicide bombers have a just or unjust cause is a very tricky question to answer. Since we are talking about modern day examples, let us assume we are referring to modern day su icide bombers recruited for groups like Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda’s objective is to stop the evils of American-Western oppression and economic control in the Arab world. In the last century, America has secured a dictatorship in Iran, invaded Iraq on a number of occasions, invaded Afghanistan overthrowing the Taliban and has stationed troops in Saudi Arabia in an effort to maintain a partnership that would give the United States cheap oil. Certainly having felt the oppression, suicide bombers and terrorists networks who do not have the means to take on the American military head on and engage in what is called guerilla or asymmetrical warfare. Suicide bombers will target the populations of western countries in order for the people to demand policy changes from the government out of fear of further attacks. After the dreadful Madrid bombings in 2004, the Spanish government pulled out of Iraq. A parallel can be drawn to the terrorist organization in the â€Å"Just Assassins†, unable to take the Russian military head on, the oppressed proletariats resort to unconventional warfare of terrorism against the leaders of governments in order to achieve their goal of freedom which Camus would define as clearly a just want for both those in the Arab world and for the proletariats of Russia. All this being considered, those opposed to the granting terrorists the â€Å"just cause† stamp of approval, we must consider that suicide bombers unlike Kaliayev are engaging in the violation of one of Camus’s largest moral constraints which includes the killing of innocents, along with the guilty. When a suicide bomber blows himself up, he usually does so with the goal of killing as many people as possible. In the story, kalayev cannot bring himself to kill the Grand Dukes niece and nephew because they are innocent; a group consensus follows his decision. If the Madrid back pack bombers wanted to get Camus’s morally blameless stamp of approval, perhaps they would have blown up the Spanish government rather than commuters. Having considered all the factors that have been discussed, for suicide bombers to be morally blameless by Camus’s standards they must first have a just cause and secondly practice proportional atonement. Whether or not some suicide bombers have a just cause is certainly up for interpretation and can be seen in many different lights, factors would include whether blowing up civilians is morally just and on what account they can be seen as blameful for even supporting a government that oppresses a people. On the other hand, assuming that the given suicide bombers have a just cause, it is evident for the reasons stated above that no modern day suicide bomber can fit the criteria of proportional atonement. Therefore anyway you put it, modern day suicide bombers are not morally blameless because they cannot meet both criteria successfully. Works Cited Camus, Albert, and Stuart Gilbert. Caligula Three Other Plays. New York: Random House, 1958. Print. Merari, Ariel. Driven to Death: Psychological and Social Aspects of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Study on the Market Response to Stock Splits

Study on the Market Response to Stock Splits The market response to stock splits is investigated with the dataset from an emerging country – India for period 2006 March 2009. study reports significantly positive abnormal returns on day of split execution and next trading day. regression analysis suggests that the reaction can be attributed to liquidity hypothesis. The postsplit period experiences abnormally high negative which wipes out any positive gain during split execution. This seems mostly explained by presplit price increase and size of firms suggesting that the have experienced a in period are ones suffer worst returns. In theory, stocksplits are cosmetic corporate events as they simply increase the number of outstanding shares and decrease the price of each outstanding share. Hence, there should be no significant effect on the value of the firm. A stock split does not change the revenue or assets of a company. So, stocksplit should cause no change in price other than the adjustment warranted by the split factor. There should also be no change in distribution of stock returns around exdates of stock splits. Exdate refers to the date on or after which a security is traded without a previously declared dividend or distribution. However, empirical evidence suggests that the market generally reacts favorably to stock splits. In different developed markets, for instance, UK and US, significant positive abnormal returns and increase in variance and volumes of trade have been documented around stock split announcements as well as exdates. The contradiction between theory, which expects no change in firm va lue consequent to stock splits, and the reality, with scores of evidence of significant market reaction, triggers the present study. In February 1981, the Indian ministry of finance issued a guideline that denomination of equity shares be fixed uniformly at Rs.10, and that the denomination of the then existing shares other than Rs.10 be converted into denomination of Rs.10. In another guideline in January 1983, the Indian government clarified that denomination of shares of Rs.100 need not be changed to denomination of Rs.10, i.e. shares of all companies were required to be in denominations of Rs.10 or Rs.100 only. Even so, several companies converted the denomination of shares of Rs.100 into that of Rs.10 on the grounds that it generated better liquidity, as also a higher value for the shares. However, in March 1999, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) decided, with the objective of broadening the investors base, to dispense away with the requirement of standard denomination of Rs.100 or Rs.10 and gave freedom to companies to issue shares of any denomination but not below Re.1. Companies that had issued shares of the face value of Rs.10 or Rs.100 were also permitted to avail of this facility by consolidation or by splitting their existing shares. To reap benefits of splitting, a number of existing listed companies having denomination of Rs.100 or Rs.10 have split their stocks into different denominations, e.g., Re.1, Rs.2 or Rs.5, etc. These recent changes in the Indias regulatory environment offer a unique opportunity to gain further insight into the stock splits with reference to their effects on variables like stock prices, return, volatility, and trading volume. With the increased integration of international markets in general and a wave of liberalization and globalization, the importance of understanding these stock events has increased dramatically. Further, there a re different capital gains tax laws in India. Under these circumstances, splits may have different effects contrary to what has been reported in various literatures. Furthermore, compared to the worlds major stock exchanges, there are proportionally more small firms listed on Indian exchanges; consequently, many firms are thinly traded. Hence, these differences between Global and Indian markets necessitate studying split events in India. The results of the present study shows significantly positive cumulative abnormal returns on and the next trading day after split execution, following which there is a major decline in share prices which wipes out most of the gain of the execution period. The signaling hypothesis and the trading range hypothesis do not seem to provide any explanation for the significant CAR around execution date, while the liquidity hypothesis seems to contribute significantly towards the positive CAR occurring on and immediately after the execution. The small firm hypothesis also 6 shows weak explanatory power for the change in wealth. The post execution negative reaction is mostly explained by run up of stock prices preceding the execution, implying that the stock split has induced a revision of stocks fundamentals, probably bringing prices to a more fundamental level. 7 2. . Literature review There have been numerous researches on the effect of stock splits on different parameters of capital markets. Fama etal (1969) has been the pioneering study to examine the share price performance of splitting firms. Although the economic literature has not yet found a definitive explanation for either the abnormal returns observed around the announcement and execution dates, or the reasons why managers decide to split, different explanations, not necessarily mutually exclusive have been proposed. The more prominent hypotheses are the signaling hypothesis, the trading range hypothesis, the liquidity hypothesis and the neglected firm hypothesis. One such research paper advocates considering the three different market efficiencies (weak form, semistrong form, and strong form) that the investor can make an above normal return by relying on public information impounded in a stock split announcement. This study agrees that according to the semistrong form market efficiency, the stock split announcement do impact the company stock price. The study done by Desai, Jain (1997) elaborates more on longrun performance of common stock following stock splits announcement and hence concludes that the capital market doesnt fully react to the information conveyed in the stock split announcement. Considering the ignored studies of small firms, the paper examined firm portfolio of different sizes and more diversity in terms of industries. Taking a large sample of stock information for a period of 1976 – 91, the research paper concluded that the market does not incorporate the full effect of the stock split announcement in the month of announcement. It is evident that managers believe that stock split results in optimal trading price of a stock that attract small investors and hence enhances liquidity. Joshipura (2008) studied the price and liquidity effects associated with stock split surrounding its announcement and execution 8 dates in Indian stock exchanges. The results suggested that though there were some positive abnormal return associated surrounding announcement and execution dates of the stock split, but it reverses in just a few days after the event dates, and ultimately generates significant negative abnormal return in slightly longer postexecution window. It also found that there was a significant improvement seen in liquidity surrounding announcement and execution dates of stock split. Desai and Nimalendran (1998) examined the effect of the change in trading activity after stock splits on volatility and spread. The results of the study show that the increase in volatility cannot be attributed solely to microstructure biases arising from the bidask bounce and price discreteness. Even after correcting for these two biases, the study found a significant increase in volatility after the split. The study also found an increase in the number of trades after the split, and the increase in the biasadjus ted volatility was positively related to this increase in the number of trades. The study decomposed volatility into transient and permanent components and found that both components of volatility increase after the split. Attributing transient volatility to noise traders and permanent volatility to informed traders, the study suggested that trading by both types of traders increases after the split. Ikenberry, etal (1996) discusses that splits are used to move stock prices into a trading range to increase liquidity and that they are used by management as a signal of positive private information. The study found evidence that is consistent with the view that splits are typically used to realign stock prices to a normal trading range. The study also confirmed that splits convey favorable information, thereby validating the signaling hypothesis. It was found that market reaction was greater for small firms, low booktomarket firms and firms splitting to low share prices. The study also found an inverse relationship between the presplit run up and postsplit excess returns, suggesting that the results were not attributable to momentum. 9 There are various studies devoted to studying the effect of stock splits in specific geographies. Asquith, etal (1989) examined stock splits in the US market and found that stock splits do convey earnings information. The results indicated that firms split their shares after a significant increase in earnings. Before the stock split announcement, the market expects these earnings increases to be temporary. The split announcement leads investors to increase their expectations that the past earnings increases are permanent. The study also found that the markets reaction to the split announcement cannot be attributed to expectations of either future earnings increases or nearterm cash dividend increases. Elfakhani, etal (2003) examined the market behavior surrounding stock split announcements in the Canadian market for the 1977–1993 period and the effect of the 2year before compared to the 2year after the announcement. Using the event study methodology, the findings indicated tha t positive abnormal returns exist on both the announcement days (0,1) and the 11day period surrounding stock split announcements. The results also showed that following the split event, bidask spreads decrease, while both trading volume and the number of transactions increase thus suggesting that split events enhance liquidity. Further, the study observed that earnings grow in the 2year period following split events, thus implying that split events signal future performance of the firm. Wulff (2002) investigated market reaction to stock splits using a set of German firms and in line with the US findings, found significant positive abnormal returns around both the announcement and the execution day of German stock splits. The study also observed an increase in return variance and in liquidity after the exday. The study found that abnormal returns around the announcement day are not related to changes in liquidity, but (negatively) to firm size, thus lending support to the neglected f irm hypothesis. Despite noting a substantial increase in liquidity after the split, the study did not find support for the liquidity 10 hypothesis. Menendez, etal (2003) analyzed the motivations and valuation effects of stock splits in the Spanish market. The findings of the study suggest that splitting firms present a presplit stock price above the normal trading range, and that, after the split, the number of transactions and the average transaction size increase significantly. Moreover, positive abnormal returns are observed around the announcement dates and around the exdate. For the latter, however, these positive wealth effects are outweighed by the negative abnormal returns observed closely afterwards. The study found that liquidity, or the optimal trading range hypotheses prevailed over other hypotheses as an explanation for stock splits in the Spanish market. The findings of the study suggest the main reason behind a stock split and for the positive market reaction around the stock split announcements is a higher share price than the normal trading range. The reduction of this higher price seems to attract s mall investors and thus significant increases in the number of transactions and reductions in the trading volume per transaction after the split are observed, without there being any significant variation in the volume of shares traded. This adjustment of the firms stock price to a normal trading range is valued positively by investors. Most of these studies are concentrated mainly around market reaction at the announcement date. In a study on the UK equity market, specifically concentrating on the exsplit date, Staikouras etal, (2009) has documented positive abnormal returns on and around the exsplit date which are partially predictable using the publicly available information prior to the exsplit date. The study also observed a persistent increase in the post split volatility of the stocks in the UK equity market with this increase being better explained by the daily trading volume. This is in contrast to the US findings where the daily number of trades was found to better capture the increase in volatility. 11 In this study, the market response to stock splits is investigated with the dataset from an emerging country – India, which is distanced from the west in terms of geographical location, economic development, institutional and legal framework. Not much is available in the Indian context with a focus on the exsplit date, so far, except for the commendable work by Mishra (2007), which documents negative effect on price and return of stocks following splits. The study also reports a positive effect on volatility and trading volume following the split events. The present paper tries to provide a few additional insights on the issue and therefore, differs from Mishras (2007) study in the following ways. Firstly, an attempt is made to explain the significant cumulative abnormal returns around the split execution dates with the help of regression analysis. Secondly, the independent variables cover issues like small firm hypothesis, price run up, deviation of price from market average, which are unexplored in his paper. Thirdly, the data set of the present study covers the period post Mishras study, i.e., from 2006 to March 2009. HHHHyyyyppppooootttthhhheeeesssseeees s ffffoooorrrrmmmmuuuullllaaaattttiiiioooon n TTTThhhhe e ssssiiiiggggnnnnaaaalllliiiinnnng g hhhhyyyyppppooootttthhhheeeessssiiiis s The signaling hypothesis proposes that, in a scenario of asymmetric information between managers and investors, managers may use stock splits to signal positive information to the market about the firms future expectations. The presence of positive abnormal returns around the stock split announcement that is found in many empirical studies provides evidence for the signaling hypothesis. 12 Trading range hypothesis According to the optimal trading range hypothesis, stock splits are used as tools to realign the share price to a desired price range so that it is more affordable for small investors to buy round lots of shares. If the presplit share price is at a high level, then a stock split is justified for improving the marketability of the shares. Empirical findings suggesting an increase in the daily number of transactions after the split do not reject this optimal range hypothesis. TTTThhhhe e lllliiiiqqqquuuuiiiiddddiiiitttty y hhhhyyyyppppooootttthhhheeeessssiiiis s The managements motivation to bring the share price to an optimal trading range arises from the desire to improve liquidity. According to literature there is an observed increase in trading volume during the postsplit period, and hence provide support for the liquidity hypothesis of stock splits. Staikouras etal, (2009) in their study of the UK equity market document a strong and positive relationship between the measures of trading activity and the returns volatility over the preand postsplit horizons. SSSSmmmmaaaalllll l ffffiiiirrrrm m hhhhyyyyppppooootttthhhheeeessssiiiis s Small firm or neglected firm hypothesis suggests that since the smaller firms have fewer announcements published in the financial press, the split announcement is expected to create greater market interest than it would be in case of larger firms. So, small firms may have an incentive to adopt the stock splits to grab more attention. Based on the discussion above, we can lay down the objectives of this study. The study proposes to, using data from the Indian stock market, examine the presence of positive abnormal returns over the stock split 13 period and, if found to be true, to study whether the returns can be explained using any of the hypotheses mentioned above. We formulate the following hypotheses: HHHH1111: There is no significant abnormal return around the exsplit date. HHHH2222: If H1 rejected, returns are identical for all firms in sample. HHHH3333: and H2 the abnormal observed around event window [1,+1] can be attributed to publicly available information based on one or more of theoretical hypotheses above. HHHH4444: If H3 is true, a similar explanation can be made using this data for different time horizons around the exdate. An event study framework is employed to test the above hypotheses. An OLS regression model is used for determining the factors for the occurrence of abnormal returns across the event window. 14 3333. . DDDDaaaatttta a aaaannnnd d MMMMeeeetttthhhhooooddddoooollllooooggggy y 3333.1 DDDDaaaatttta a CCCCoooolllllllleeeeccccttttiiiioooon n The basic sample is comprised of all Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) equity stocks that have split between January 2006 and March 2009. The National Stock Exchange website was used to download list of stocks that have undergone a stock split in this period. There were a total of 151 stock splits during the period. All financial data series for these stocks like daily closing adjusted prices, market capitalization, trading volume and market indices were downloaded from Thomson DataStream. The following criteria have been applied to include a company in the sample. i) The stock price data is available for 260 days prior to the exsplit date. ii) Data for 260 days are available for the postsplit period. iii) Where a stock has split more than once in the sample period, the first exsplit date was considered. iv) Other required financial information is available. After filtering on the basis of the above criteria, the number of firms on which the analysis could be carried out was 99. 3333.2 DDDDaaaatttta a AAAAnnnnaaaallllyyyyssssiiiis s Table 1A Table 1B below show summary statistics of the sample stocks used for this study. There is an even distribution of stock splits in each year of the sample period indicating normal stock split activity in the Indian equity market 15 for the given period. However, analysis on a monthly basis reveals that August, September and October are the most active months for stock splits, possibly indicating a preference by firms to execute the split around that time. More than 40 percent of the firms in the sample have the stock split in this period. 5:1 split is the most common split ratio (57 firms) in the sample followed by 10:1 and 2:1 split ratios. For the 4:1, 6:1 and 5:2 split ratios, there is only one stock in the sample period. Therefore, summary statistics for these stocks were not calculated as any observations made would be a result of a very firm specific performance and not a general conclusion. The average price for the 2:1, 5:1 and 10:1 split sizes are Rs. 229.99, Rs. 192.30 and Rs. 215.27 respectively. No conclusive relation between the stock price and the split ratio can be inferred from the maximum and minimum values shown below. The average marketcap for the 2:1, 5:1 and 10:1 split sizes are Rs. 13068.56 million, Rs. 57129.56 million and Rs. 87126 million respectively. The average market capitalization is observed to increase with higher split ratio possibly indicating that the largecap stocks are the ones that usually opt for the higher split ratio. 16 TTTTaaaabbbblllle e 1111AAAA: : SSSSttttoooocccck k SSSSpppplllliiiit t ssssaaaammmmpppplllle e ddddiiiissssttttrrrriiiibbbbuuuuttttiiiioooon n TTTTaaaabbbblllle e 1111BBBB: : SSSSttttoooocccck k SSSSpppplllliiiit t ssssuuuummmmmmmmaaaarrrry y ssssttttaaaattttiiiissssttttiiiiccccs s 17 3333.3 MMMMeeeetttthhhhooooddddoooollllooooggggy y EEEEvvvveeeennnnt t bbbbaaaasssseeeed d ssssttttuuuuddddy y Event studies start with hypothesis about how a particular event affects the value of a firm. The hypothesis that the value of the company has changed will be translated in the stock showing an abnormal return. Coupled with the notion that the information is readily impounded into prices, the concept of abnormal returns (or performance) is the central key of event study methods. How does a particular event affect the value of a company? We must be careful because at any time we observe a mixture of market wide factors and a bunch of other firm events. To correctly measure the impact of a particular event we need to control for those unrelated factors. The selection of the benchmark to use or the model to measure normal returns is therefore central to conduct an event study. The empirical model can be stated as follows: when an event occurs, market participants revise their beliefs causing a shift in the firms return generati ng process. For a given security, in non event periods, Rt = xt B + et while in event periods, Rt = xtB + FG + et Rt is the return of the security in period t, xt is a vector of independent variables (for example the return of the market portfolio) in period t, B is a vector of parameters, such as the security beta, F is a row vector of firm characteristics influencing the impact of the event on the return process. G is a vector of parameters measuring the influence of F on the impact of 18 the event and et is a mean zero disturbance term possibly differing in event and non event periods. Hypotheses usually centre on the parameters that measure the influence of the event (G) and most of the times F is set to unity. The null hypothesis is that such an event has no impact on the return generating process. Event study methods are the econometric techniques used to estimate and draw inferences about the impact of an event in a particular period or over several periods. The most common approach involves three steps: (1) Compute the parameters in the estimation period; (2) Compute the forecast errors (and obtain variance/covariance information) for a period or over an event window; aggregate across firms and infer about the average effect; (3) Regress crosssectional abnormal returns on relevant features of the stock supposed to influence the impact of the event. In this study, the event is the split execution date, defined as day 0. The event splits the sample into two sets – the presplit period and the postsplit period. The presplit period considered in this study is a period of 260 days prior to the event date (260 days to 1 day) and the postsplit period is the period of 260 days after the event date (+1 day to +260 days). This leads to a total period of 521 trading days data for each stock (including the split date) centered around the event date for that stock. In essence, all stocks are aligned according to their event timeline. The estimation window is the 220 day period from 260 to 41 trading days. A similar event based alignment of data was performed for the other financial data namely market capitalization, market index and trading volume. In this study, the benchmark index chosen for running the regression for the market model is the BSE 100 index. The index price was also aligned according to the split date for each stock t o obtain comparable market 19 return at and around the event date. The Brown and Warner (1985) methodology is applied to test for the significance of abnormal returns. Regressions to estimate the parameters of the market model The standard single index asset pricing model is used to estimate the market parameters ( ÃŽ ² and c). The market model used to estimate the parameters is given as below: Ri = ÃŽ ²Rm + c where Ri – expected return of stock i Rm – market return c constant of regression

Latitudinal Gradient of Species Diversity Essay -- Geography Geology N

Latitudinal Gradient of Species Diversity The latitudinal gradient in species diversity is one of the most striking patterns in the distribution of organisms on the planet. Simply put, the average number of species per unit area increases dramatically the closer the area is to the equator, almost entirely regardless of the type of organism being considered (Pianka, 1994). Researchers investigating the gradient have formulated a wide variety of hypothesis explaining the higher level of species diversity in the tropics. These include but are not limited to: a greater degree of evolution and radiation in tropical species due to the long and relatively stable geological history of the area, seasonal climatic stability and/or predictability, a higher level of productivity, an increased rate of competition and a higher predation intensity (Pianka, 1994). Another theory is that tropical soils somehow influence species diversity and thus cause the latitudinal gradient. This paper will further investigate this final theory by outlini ng the basic characteristics of tropical soils, summarizing the mechanisms invoked to explain species diversity with these soil characteristics, and evaluating how well this research agrees with what is known about tropical soils. For the sake of narrowing the topic somewhat, attention is limited to the soils of and research occurring in Latin America. Tropical Soils In the past, tropical soils have been over-simplified and misunderstood (Sanchez, 1976), and this situation plagued soil science at least until the late seventies (Van Wambeke and Dudal, 1978). Sanchez (1976) attributes this misunderstanding of tropical soils to the fact that when temperate region-trained soil scientists first went to the... ...s richness in Costa Rican forests: Journal of Biogeography, 7, 147-157. Jordan, C.F. and Herrera, R., 1981, Tropical rain forests: are nutrients really critical?: American Naturalist, 117, 167-180. Paoletti, M.G., Taylor, R.A.J., Stinner, B.R., Stinner, D.H., and Benzing, D.H., Diversity of soil fauna in the canopy and forest floor of a Venequelan cloud forest: Journal of Tropical Ecology, 7, 373-383. Pianka, E.R., 1994. Evolutionary Ecology, Fifth Edition: New York, Harper Collins College Publishers, p. 390-396. Sanchez, P., 1976, Properties and Management of Soils in the Tropics: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Chapters 2,3,4, and 5. Van Wambeke, A., and Dudal, R., 1978, Macrovariability of soils of the tropics, p. 13-28 in Stelly, M. (editor-in-chief), Diversity of Soils in the Tropics: Ithaca, Department of Agronomy, Cornell University Press.

hindu :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The sixth century B.C., the Hindu religion and the caste system had become a way of life in India. They believed that the only way to gain salvation was by obeying caste rules and following complex ritual. The people taught these ritual were to strict, and did not meet the needs of the common people. So they started to listen to other religions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Buddhism is a religion founded in India, that share some comparison with Hinduism. Buddhism was founded by an Indian prince born about 563 B.C. His father, a wealthy noble, wanted to protect his son from the harsh realites of the world. But his father couldn’t protect him forever, and when he was about 29 years old he saw a dying man, a sick man in pain and a religious beggar. After seeing these things the prince worried, why was so much sorrow in the world. Then when he was about 35, Siddhartha Guatama decided to sit under a fig until he found answers. He was there for forty-nine days, and that day he saw the reason for life suffering and a way to overcome them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gautama started to speak of Four Noble Truths. The first was, sorrow and suffering are part of life. Second, people suffer because they try to get things they can’t have. Next, you had to reach a state of â€Å"not wanting†. The fourth they should have neither too much nor too little pleasure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Both Hinduism and Buddhism shared some of their beliefs. But there are some differences. Buddhism placed most importance on one’s life, than one caste and they saw little value in complex rituals. He taught that a person could get enlightenment in one lifetime. As Buddhism spread, disagreements grew up about some of its teachings and beliefs. At first Buddha was saw as a guideline for living. His followers saw him only as a teacher. Then a philosopher named Menius taught that the welfare of the people were the main concerns of a ruler. And if that wasn’t the rulers main affair, he should be overthrown. Confucius a traveling bureaucrat named K’ung Fu-tzu, was regarded as China’s greatest thinker and teacher. He was not really concern with the soul, the afterlife nor the worship of gods. He was more concern with questions of morality. Confucius had five basic relationships. They are: between ruler and subjects, father and son, husband and wife, older and

Personal Narrative: My Experience Teaching versus Learning Essay

Last semester I led a ninth-grade class room through a reading of Romeo and Juliet. I had little time to prepare for this unit of study, and had never formally studied or written about the play. I worked my way through each scene, preparing prompts and discussions that seemed relevant to the content of the play, to its connections to private and public social issues (both Elizabethan and modern), and to why the play was written in poetic form, or what the poet was trying to do with language. The play is rife with paradox, oxymoron, and ambiguity, so finding a focal point or common theme to unify the various lessons was difficult. However, as we approached the final act, everything that the students and I had explored in this play seemed to me to be pointing back to a line early in Act I, "Part fools! You know not what you do." Born into a world of contradictory and opposing forces of control, authority, and traditional obligations, a young person does not have the means to make judgments but is swept along on the tide of what others say must be done. If one's heart or conscience cries out for a different course, lack of experience and of developed judgment can be fatal. Role models are required who can model the skills of weighing the pros and cons, of balancing the heart and the head, of inquiring and seeking out knowledge before a final decision is made. Friar Lawrence spoke this lesson, but cryptically, through the metaphors of poison/medicine and haste/patience, yet he did not model the exercise of inquiring, balancing, and weighing before acting. It suddenly occurred to me that the wisdom that Friar Lawrence advocates but does not exactly inspire, is exactly the sort of wisdom that we were exercising in the classroom as we... ...ts' enjoyment of reading and writing and also their desire to participate in language arts. Another experience confirmed my belief that learning and teaching is not a one-way street in the classroom. Teachers are not the privileged literati who are desperately trying to inculcate knowledge into the uneducated mass of students. Teachers need to respect the human mind in any stage of development and accept the fact that they can learn things from someone who is not an expert in the field. The teacher is a learner, and the students are teachers. The study of Romeo and Juliet during my student teaching experience was a collective effort to examine and interpret eternally recurring human achievements, failures, struggles, goals and desires. I learned a great deal through reading and discussing the writing of the students, and I hope that they learned something from me.

Homosexuality in the Christian Church Essay

Homosexuality is defined as consistent fantasy, interest and arousal toward a person of the same sex. Disagreement exists about the explanation of homosexuality. On the other hand, evidence supports the fact that homosexuality has existed throughout the history of humankind and is not just a development of the 20th century. Early psychoanalytic theory concluded that homosexuality developed from conflicts derived from early developmental disturbances. Investigators more in recent times have explored neuroendocrine explanations as a cause of homosexual development. The results of these studies have been controversial. On the other hand, a lot of experts believe that sexual orientation, whether heterosexual or homosexual, is the consequence of a multifaceted interface flanked by anatomic and hormonal influences during fetal growth. As investigators attempt to reply the question of etiology, others have worked to further define the incidence of homosexuality. Cognitive and communal expansion throughout adolescence is an intricate progression characterized by the acquisition of a sense of self-separate from family, a sexual independence, the capacity for intimacy and the ability to be autonomous. (The Christian Science Monitor) For those young people who grow a homosexual orientation in a society based on heterosexuality, the changeover all the way through adolescence is expanded and expressed to some extent in a different way throughout the stage of acquiring a sexual uniqueness. Interviews with gay and lesbian youth specify a general pattern in which an adolescent accepts his or her own homosexuality. It is the sexual orientation toward people of the same sex. Homosexuality contrasts with heterosexuality, sexual orientation toward people of the opposite sex. People with a sexual orientation toward members of both sexes are called bisexuals. Female homosexuals are often called lesbians. In modern years, the word gay has been applied to both homosexual men and women. Homosexuality appears in almost all societal contexts within unlike community settings, socioeconomic levels, and cultural and dutiful groups. The number of homosexuals in the inhabitants is not easy to find out, and dependable data do not subsist. Nevertheless, current estimates propose that the term homosexual may relate to 2 to 4 percent of men. Estimates for lesbians are lesser. Not all people who slot in homosexual commotion essentially classify themselves as homosexual. (Zgourides, G. ) The move toward greater unity among Protestant denominations has continued in the 21st century; however, within denominations there is still conflict between conservatives and moderates or liberals. One for the most part divisive issue is homosexuality. Denominations debate whether to ordain practicing homosexuals and whether to bar clergy from performing same-sex marriage ceremonies. Some churches condemn all homosexual activity, while others refuse to do so. Consequently, according to the same religious law that many of them use when religiously citing the gay and lesbian community, countless, reputable Christian leaders today, especially within African America, are in a word adulterers. However, you will not readily read of religious leaders publicly denouncing the social and spiritual validity of their fellow divorced clergy who have married more than once, like you will their `cry loud and spare not’ public cries relating to gay and lesbians desiring the equal choice and right to marry only once. There exists no evidence that suggests Jesus ever discussed same-sex anything, publicly or privately, during his ministry. However, Christ, the bedrock of modern-day Christianity, did publicly condemn religious leaders of his age for granting bills of divorcement. However, wading through all the hype in the media these days one might just conclude the opposite. (Knutson, D. C. ) It is considered an act of unconditional grace to say that the immeasurable, unmerited grace available from God stops only at the sin of adultery. Does God’s amazing grace cover only those sins of Old Testament law that are socially comfortable by today’s standards? Let me put it another way: Is divorce (absent of unfaithfulness) a sin? Many Christians might respond, and there is plenty of scripture to back that up. Then will God consider the bed of that remarried person defiled? Most would probably respond, No, absolutely not, because of the New Testament law of grace, and there is plenty of scripture to support this. Christian churches historically have discriminated, excluded, and persecuted homosexuals on the basis of their sexuality. The emergence of new social attitudes and modernization has contributed to the easing of such taboos. However, the role of the church to defend minorities has led to serious conflicts between the gay community and the church’s prohibition of homosexuality. Within the Christian churches, homosexually oriented people have been excluded, marginalized and persecuted in the great majority of cases. The relatively few exceptions, which are known, are seldom taken into account. John Boswell, from whom the most important studies in this area have come, has found examples of liturgical forms for the union of same-sex partners from the churches of Asia Minor. Nevertheless, it must be said in general that in societies, which have morally proscribed homosexual relations, treated them as taboo or legally forbidden them, the sexual ethic upheld by the churches has not represented a divergent position. (Bauserman, R. ) New reflection by the churches in this area began only under the influence of a shift in social attitudes towards sexuality. The processes of modernization and secularization were accompanied by a removal of sexuality from the realm of taboo and a new respect for the private sphere. Furthermore, since the end of the 19th century modern sexual research has brought new insights into how the sexual identity of persons is formed. In addition, constitutional provisions guaranteeing the rule of law have made it possible for the first time for homosexual people to organize and struggle publicly for the abolition of discriminatory laws and regulations. For the most part the churches have supported the decriminalization of homosexuality only hesitantly. Nor was this new orientation primarily the consequence of new biblical insights or spiritual experiences; rather, the reconsideration was touched off by other factors. In the first place, personal encounter with gay or lesbian people, once they no longer had to conceal themselves but could begin to speak for themselves, was certainly important. As a rule, living alongside homosexual persons on the job, in the neighborhood, within the circle of friends or relatives leads to a reconsideration of traditional social or individual prejudices. A second factor was the exposure of individuals or groups in a good number of churches and congregations to the investigations and findings of modern empirical research on sexuality. However, this research is academically institutionalized (usually in connection with faculties of medicine) in only a few countries; and church declarations on sexual ethics draw explicitly on scientific sexological research only rarely and usually in passing. Finally, it should be noted that quite a few churches have accepted the decriminalization of homosexuality and the principle of non-discrimination against people because of sexual orientation through decisions by their competent governing bodies without however immediately reconsidering their own moral convictions and reservations on the issue. Churches time and again have a great deal of freedom for autonomous structuring of their ordinances and especially their offices. They should work at abolishing any remaining discrimination because of individual sexual orientation in the right to hold office and accept homosexual persons as office-bearers of course, as in the case of all office-bearers, according to the measure of their suitability for the growth of the community. (Boswell, J)

Logic: American Association of State Colleges and Universities and Subsequent Rights Restrictions

Sequenced. Precise. Elegant. Clear. Hurley’s A Concise Introduction to Logic, 11th Edition How to Make an Origami Crane Make your own origami crane using these instructions and the perforated sheet of paper included in your book. 1. Start with a square piece of paper, colored side up. Fold in half and open. Then fold in half the other way. 2. Turn the paper over to the white side. Fold the paper in half, crease well and open, and then fold again in the other direction. 3. Using the creases you have made, bring the top 3 corners of the model down to the bottom corner.Flatten model. The iconic red crane on the cover of this new edition of Hurley’s, A Concise Introduction to Logic symbolizes the qualities that make it the most successful logic text on the market. We have chosen origami to symbolize this text’s careful sequencing, precision, elegance, and clarity. About the Cover 4. Fold top triangular flaps into the center and unfold. 5. Fold top of model downwards, crease well and unfold. 6. Open the uppermost flap of the model, bringing it upwards and pressing the sides of the model inwards at the same time. Flatten down, creasing well.Couple an icon steeped in tradition with a clean, modern design, and you will quickly get a sense of the qualities that make this new edition of Hurley the best yet. Along with instructions, each new text includes a sheet of red paper so that you can bring the cover to life. This exercise serves as a metaphor for the process of learning logic. It is challenging, requires practice, but can be fun. Ideas for other ways to create your own origami can be found at www. origami-resource-center. com. 7. Turn model over and repeat Steps 4-6 on the other side. . Fold top flaps into the center. 9. Repeat on other side. 10. Fold both ‘legs’ of 11. Inside Reverse Fold the â€Å"legs† model up, crease along the creases very well, then you just made. unfold. Finished Crane. 12. Inside Reverse Fold one si de to make a head, then fold down the wings. Source: www. origami-fun. com Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Logic Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO Logic ELEVENTH EDITION PATRICK J. HURLEY University of San Diego Australia †¢ Brazil †¢ Japan †¢ Korea †¢ Mexico †¢ Singapore †¢ Spain †¢ United Kingdom †¢ United States Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www. cengage. com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party co ntent may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. A Concise Introduction to Logic, Eleventh Edition Patrick J. Hurley Publisher: Clark Baxter Senior Sponsoring Editor: Joann Kozyrev Development Editor: Florence Kilgo Assistant Editor: Nathan Gamache Editorial Assistant: Michaela Henry Media Editor: Diane Akerman Marketing Manager: Mark T.Haynes Marketing Coordinator: Josh Hendrick Marketing Communications Manager: Laura Localio Content Project Manager: Alison Eigel Zade Senior Art Director: Jennifer Wahi Print Buyer: Paula Vang Production Service: Elm Street Publishing Services Internal designer: Yvo Riezebos Cover designer: Jeff Bane of CMB Design Partners Cover image: Courtesy of Getty Images: Red origami crane on white table (image numbe r 85592979) Compositor: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.  © 2012, 2008, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www. cengage. com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email  protected] com. Library of Congress Control Number: 2010924757 Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978 -0-8400-3417-5 ISBN-10: 0-8400-3417-2 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with o? e locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local o? ce at: international. cengage. com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www. cengage. com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www. cengagebrain. com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. To: All of the instructors, past and present, who have taught logic from this book. It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence. –W. K. Clifford Nothing can be more important than the art of formal reasoning according to true logic. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Brief Contents Preface xiii PART I  Ã‚  INFORMAL LOGIC 1 2 3 Basic Concepts 1 Lang uage: Meaning and De? ition 78 Informal Fallacies 119 PART II  Ã‚  FORMAL LOGIC 4 5 6 7 8 Categorical Propositions 197 Categorical Syllogisms 259 Propositional Logic 310 Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic 380 Predicate Logic 442 PART III  Ã‚  INDUCTIVE LOGIC 9 10 11 12 13 14 Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning 509 Causality and Mill’s Methods 529 Probability 554 Statistical Reasoning 571 Hypothetical/Scienti? c Reasoning 593 Science and Superstition 615 Appendix: Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises 655 Glossary/Index 697 vi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents Preface xiii PART I? INFORMAL LOGIC 1 Basic Concepts EXERCISE 1. 1 7 1 1 14 33 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 1. 2 Recognizing Arguments EXERCISE 1. 2 25 1. 3 Deduction and Induction EXERCISE 1. 40 1. 4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency 44 EXERCISE 1. 4 53 1. 5 Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity EXERCISE 1. 5 63 57 1. 6 Extended Arguments EXERCISE 1. 6 70 64 2 Language: Meaning and De? nition 2. 1 Varieties of Meaning EXERCISE 2. 1 83 78 78 88 2. 2 The Intension and Extension of Terms EXERCISE 2. 2 92 2. 3 De? nitions and Their Purposes EXERCISE 2. 3 99 93 2. 4 De? nitional Techniques EXERCISE 2. 4 108 102 111 2. 5 Criteria for Lexical De? nitions EXERCISE 2. 5 115 vii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial revi ew has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 3 Informal Fallacies 3. 1 Fallacies in General EXERCISE 3. 1 121 119 122 138 119 3. 2 Fallacies of Relevance EXERCISE 3. 2 133 3. 3 Fallacies of Weak Induction EXERCISE 3. 3 149 3. 4 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Grammatical Analogy 156 EXERCISE 3. 4 170 . 5 Fallacies in Ordinary Language EXERCISE 3. 5 185 178 PART II? FORMAL LOGIC 4 Categorical Propositions 197 4. 1 The Components of Categorical Propositions 197 EXERCISE 4. 1 200 4. 2 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution EXERCISE 4. 2 204 200 4. 3 Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition 205 EXERCISE 4. 3 216 4. 4 Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition EXERCISE 4. 4 225 217 4. 5 The Traditional Square of Opposition EXERCISE 4. 5 234 227 4. 6 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Standpoint 239 EXERCISE 4. 6 245 4. 7 Translating Ordinary Language Statements into Categorical Form 246 EXERCISE 4. 254 viii Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 5 Categorical Syllogisms 259 5. 1 Standard Form, Mood, and Figure 259 EXERCISE 5. 1 264 5. 2 Venn Diagrams EXERCISE 5. 277 266 280 288 292 5. 3 Rules and Fallacies EXERCISE 5. 3 286 5. 4 Reducing the Number of Terms EXERCISE 5. 4 291 5. 5 Ordinary Language Arguments EXERCISE 5. 5 294 5. 6 Enthymemes 295 EXERCISE 5. 6 297 5. 7 Sorites 301 EXERCISE 5. 7 304 6 Propositional Logic EXERCISE 6. 1 319 310 6. 1 Symbols and Translation 310 6. 2 Truth Functions EXERCISE 6. 2 332 323 6. 3 Truth Tables for Propositions 335 EXERCISE 6. 3 341 6. 4 Truth Tables for Arguments EXERCISE 6. 4 347 344 6. 5 Indirect Truth Tables 350 EXERCISE 6. 5 358 6. 6 Argument Forms and Fallacies EXERCISE 6. 6 371 360 Contents ixCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 7 Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic 380 7. 1 Rules of Implication I 380 EXERCISE 7. 1 386 7. 2 Rules of Implication II 391 EXERCISE 7. 396 7. 3 Rules of Replacement I 401 EXERCISE 7. 3 407 7. 4 Rules of Replacement II EXERCISE 7. 4 419 414 7. 5 Conditional Proof EXERCISE 7. 5 430 427 7. 6 Indirect Proof EXERCISE 7. 6 436 432 438 7. 7 Proving Logical Truths EXERCISE 7. 7 440 8 Predicate Logic 442 8. 1 Symbols and Translation 442 EXERCISE 8. 1 449 8. 2 Using the Rules of Inference EXERCISE 8. 2 460 451 8. 3 Change of Quanti? er Rule EXERCISE 8. 3 467 464 468 8. 4 Conditional and Indirect Proof EXERCISE 8. 4 472 8. 5 Proving Invalidity EXERCISE 8. 5 479 474 481 8. 6 Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quanti? ers EXERCISE 8. 6 489 . 7 Identity 492 EXERCISE 8. 7 501 x Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions r equire it. Part III INDUCTIVE LOGIC 9 Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning 509 9. 1 Analogical Reasoning 9. Legal Reasoning 9. 3 Moral Reasoning EXERCISE 9 520 509 512 516 10 Causality and Mill’s Methods 10. 2 Mill’s Five Methods 531 10. 3 Mill’s Methods and Science EXERCISE 10 546 529 529 10. 1 â€Å"Cause† and Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 540 11 Probability 554 11. 1 Theories of Probability 11. 2 The Probability Calculus EXERCISE 11 567 554 557 12 Statistical Reasoning 571 12. 1 Evaluating Statistics 571 12. 2 Samples 572 576 12. 3 The Meaning of â€Å"Average† 12. 4 Dispersion 578 12. 5 Graphs and Pictograms 12. 6 Percentages 586 EXERCISE 12 588 583 13 Hypothetical/Scienti? c Reasoning 593 13. The Hypothetical Method 593 13. 2 Hypothetical Reasoning: Four Examples from Science 596 Contents xi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, som e third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 13. 3 The Proof of Hypotheses EXERCISE 13 607 02 13. 4 The Tentative Acceptance of Hypotheses 604 14 Science and Superstition 14. 2 Evidentiary Support 14. 3 Objectivity 14. 4 Integrity EXERCISE 14 615 615 14. 1 Distinguishing Between Science and Superstition 616 621 625 630 631 14. 5 Concluding Remarks Appendix: Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises Glossary/Index 697 655 xii Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that an y suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Preface The most immediate benefit derived from the study of logic is the skill needed to construct sound arguments of one’s own and to evaluate the arguments of others. In accomplishing this goal, logic instills a sensitivity for the formal component in language, a thorough command of which is indispensable to clear, e? ective, and meaningful communication.On a broader scale, by focusing attention on the requirement for reasons or evidence to support our views, logic provides a fundamental defense against the prejudiced and uncivilized attitudes that threaten the foundations of our democratic society. Finally, through its attention to inconsistency as a fatal ? aw in any theory or point of view, logic proves a useful device in disclosing ill-conceived policies in the politic al sphere and, ultimately, in distinguishing the rational from the irrational, the sane from the insane. This book is written with the aim of securing these bene? s. Every Book Has a Story When I ? rst began teaching introductory logic many years ago, I selected a textbook that was widely used and highly regarded. Yet, my students often had a hard time understanding it. The book tended to be overly wordy and the main points were often lost amid a welter of detail. Also, I found that much of the book’s content was only peripherally related to the central concepts of logic. Using this book provided the happy and unanticipated result that my students always came to class so they could hear me explain the textbook.But after I tired of doing this, I decided to write a textbook of my own that would address the de? ciencies of the one I had been using. Speci? cally, my goal was to write a book in which the main points were always presented up front so students could not possibly mis s them, the prose was clear and uncomplicated, and excess verbiage and peripheral subject matter was avoided. To accomplish these and other related goals, I incorporated the following pedagogical devices: †¢ Relevant and up-to-date examples were used extensively throughout the book. †¢ Key terms were introduced in bold face type and de? ed in the glossary/index. †¢ Central concepts were illustrated in graphic boxes. †¢ Numerous exercises—today there are over 2,600—were included to perfect student skills. †¢ Many exercises were drawn from real-life sources such as textbooks, newspapers, and magazines. †¢ Typically every third exercise was answered in the back of the book so students could check their work. xiii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial re view has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. †¢ Chapters were organized so that earlier sections provided the foundation for later ones. Later sections could be skipped by instructors opting to do so. †¢ Important rules and tables were printed on the inside covers for ready access. In its ? rst edition, the book was so well received that plans were quickly begun for a second edition.With the completion of that and later editions, the book grew to incorporate many new features: †¢ Venn diagrams for syllogisms were presented in a novel and more e? ective way using color to identify the relevant areas. †¢ Dialogue exercises were included to depict the commission of fallacies in real life. †¢ Predicate logic was extended to include relational predicates and identity. †¢ The Emin ent Logicians feature was introduced to enhance the human element: it presented the lives of historically prominent logicians. †¢ â€Å"Truth Trees† and â€Å"Critical Thinking and Writing† were written as supplements. Learning Logic, a multimedia program that includes an additional 2,000 exercises and that practically teaches the course by itself, was included in the package. †¢ A series of videos dealing with topics that students ? nd di? cult, including the concept of validity, indirect truth tables, and natural deduction, were o? ered with the last edition. I am convinced that with each successive edition the book has become a more e? ective teaching tool. I am also convinced that the current, eleventh edition, is the best and most accurate one to date. New To This Edition †¢ Five new biographical vignettes of prominent logicians are introduced.The new logicians include Ruth Barcan Marcus, Alice Ambrose, Ada Byron (Countess of Lovelace), Willard Van Orman Quine, and Saul Kripke. †¢ Six new dialogue exercises are introduced to help a? rm the relevance of formal logic to real-life. They can be found in Sections 5. 6, 6. 4, 6. 6, 7. 3, 7. 4, and 8. 2. †¢ The end-of-chapter summaries now appear in bullet format to make them more useful for student review. †¢ Many new and improved exercises and examples appear throughout the book. †¢ In Section 1. 4, the link between inductive reasoning and the principle of the uniformity of nature is explained.Cogent inductive arguments are those that accord with this principle, while weak ones violate it. Such violations are always accompanied by an element of surprise. xiv Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially aff ect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The connection between the Boolean Standpoint and the Aristotelian standpoint is explained more completely. †¢ The existential fallacy as it occurs in immediate inferences is explained in greater detail. All inferences that commit this fallacy have a universal premise and a particular conclusion. The meaning of â€Å"universal† and â€Å"particular† are extended to cover statements that are given as false. †¢ A new exercise set is introduced in Section 4. 5 that involves testing immediate inferences for soundness. †¢ An improved de? nition of the â€Å"main operator† of a compound statement is given. A new subsection is introduced in Section 6. 5 giving preliminary instruction on how to work backward from the truth values of the simple propositions to the truth values of the operators. A ne w exercise set provides practice with this technique. †¢ Section 7. 1 has been rewritten, emphasizing the strategy of trying to â€Å"? nd† the conclusion in the premises. †¢ Margin of error in Chapter 12 is now explained in terms of level of expectation. A more informative table illustrates this change. A complete list of all improvements is given at the beginning of the Instructor’s Manual.Note to the Student Imagine that you are interviewing for a job. The person across the desk asks about your strengths, and you reply that you are energetic, enthusiastic, and willing to work long hours. Also, you are creative and innovative, and you have good leadership skills. Then the interviewer asks about your weaknesses. You hadn’t anticipated this question, but after a moment’s thought you reply that your reasoning skills have never been very good. The interviewer quickly responds that this weakness could create big problems. â€Å"Why is that? † you ask. Because reasoning skills are essential to good judgment. And without good judgment your creativity will lead to projects that make no sense. Your leadership skills will direct our other employees in circles. Your enthusiasm will undermine everything we have accomplished up until now. And your working long hours will make things even worse. † â€Å"But don’t you think there is some position in your company that is right for me? † you ask. The interviewer thinks for a moment and then replies, â€Å"We have a competitor on the other side of town. I hear they are hiring right now. Why don’t you apply with them? †The point of this little dialogue is that good reasoning skills are essential to doing anything right. The business person uses reasoning skills in writing a report or preparing a presentation; the scientist uses them in designing an experiment or clinical trial, the department manager uses them in maximizing worker e? ciency, the law yer uses them in composing an argument to a judge or jury. And that’s where logic comes in. The chief purpose of logic is to develop good reasoning skills. In fact, logic is so important that when the liberal arts program of studies was formulated ? fteen hundred years Preface v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ago, logic was selected as one of the original seven liberal arts. Logic remains to this day a central component of a college or university education.From a more pragmatic angle, logic is important to earning a good score on any of the several tests required for admission to graduate professional schools—the LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, and so on. Obviously, the designers of these tests recognize that the ability to reason logically is a prerequisite to success in these ? elds. The appendix in the back of the book contains sample questions and cues on answering them. Also, logic is a useful tool in relieving what has come to be called math anxiety. For whatever reason, countless students today are terri? ed of any form of reasoning that involves abstract symbols.If you happen to be one of these students, you should ? nd it relatively easy to master the use of logical symbols, and your newly found comfort with these symbols will carry over into the other, more di? cult ? elds. To improve your performance in logic, I strongly urge you to take full advantage of a multimedia program called Learning Logic. This is an interactive tutorial that teaches the essentials of this textbook in a very user-friendly way. However, your computer mu st be equipped with loudspeakers or headphones, because the audio component is essential.Learning Logic is available both on CD and online at the Logic CourseMate site. If the CD version or a passcode for the website did not come with your textbook, it can be purchased separately through your campus bookstore if your instructor has ordered it. You can also order it directly at www. cengagebrain. com. In addition to Learning Logic, an eBook and other quizzes and self-study material are available on the Logic CourseMate site. Also available online through the Logic CourseMate site are brief video lectures on key topics. The videos include pointers on how to work the pertinent exercises in the textbook.They cover topics such as the concept of validity, conversion, obversion, and contraposition, indirect truth tables, and natural deduction. If, as you work through the content of this book, you encounter a subject that you have trouble understanding, one of these videos may solve the pro blem. Additionally, a set of audio summaries for each chapter in the book is available. These are designed so that you can download them onto your iPod, mp3 player, or computer and listen to them before taking a test. Because pro? ciency in logic involves developing a kill, it helps to work through the practice problems in Learning Logic and the exercises in the textbook more than once. This will help you see that good reasoning (and bad reasoning, too) follows certain patterns whose identi? cation is crucial to success in logic. As you progress, I think you will ? nd that learning logic can be lots of fun, and working with the online resources should enhance your overall learning experience. Note to the Instructor With this eleventh edition, Learning Logic is available both on CD and online. The CD comes free if  ordered with a new book, or it can be ordered separately at www. engagebrain. com. Online, Learning Logic it is available through the Logic CourseMate site, a password p rotected website (www. cengage. com/sso). This website o? ers the bene? t of being able to check a student’s â€Å"time on task,† that is, how much time the student has spent using a particular supplement. â€Å"Critical Thinking and Writing† and â€Å"Truthtrees† are available free on the website, and they can also be selected as modules in a custom version of the textbook. The videos, which cover topics students often have trouble with, are also available on Logic CourseMate.This edition also features Aplia, one of the Cengage Learning CourseMaster digital solutions. Aplia established a name for itself in the ? eld of economics, where it o? ers interactive online homework xvi Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed cont ent does not materially affect the overall learning experience.Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. assignments with continuous feedback to students. Providing automatic grading, Aplia increases student effort and keeps students accountable for course material while adding no additional paperwork to the instructor’s workload, leaving instructors with more time to prepare lectures and work with students. As Aplia expands its o? erings to include additional subjects, it has won widespread acclaim from thousands of instructors across numerous disciplines. Now, Aplia o? ers its signature bene? s to logic students and instructors with a program speci? cally designed to enhance student engagement. The Aplia assignments build on the exercises in this textbook, and they conform to the language, style, and structure of the book. Let me now turn to alternate ways of approaching the textbook. In genera l, the material in each chapter is arranged so that certain later sections can be skipped without a? ecting subsequent chapters. For example, those wishing a brief treatment of natural deduction in both propositional and predicate logic may want to skip the last three sections of Chapter 7 and the last four (or even ? e) sections of Chapter 8. Chapter 2 can be skipped altogether, although some may want to cover the ? rst section of that chapter as an introduction to Chapter 3. Finally, Chapters 9 through 14 depend only slightly on earlier chapters, so these can be treated in any order one chooses. However, Chapter 14 does depend in part on Chapter 13. Type of Course Traditional logic course Recommended material Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Sections 7. 1–7. 4 Informal logic course, critical reasoning course Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Sections 5. 1–5. Sections 5. 5–5. 6 Sections 6. 1–6. 4 Section 6. 6 Chapter 9 Chapter 12 C hapter 13 Chapter 14 Writing Supplement Section 5. 4 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 5 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Course emphasizing modern formal logic Chapter 1 Sections 4. 1–4. 3 Section 4. 7 Sections 6. 1–6. 5 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Truth Tree Supplement Optional material Chapter 2 Sections 7. 5–7. 7 Chapters 9–14 Chapter 3 Sections 4. 4–4. 6 Sections 5. 1–5. 2 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 6 Preface xvii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Acknowledgements For their reviews and suggestions leading to this eleventh edition I want to thank the following: Kevin Berry Scott Calef Gabriel Camacho Loren Cannon Victor Cosculluela Thompson Faller Thomas J.Frost Paul Gass Alexander Hall Courtney Hammond Merle Harton Anthony Hanson Ron Jackson William Jamison Sandra Johanson Richard Jones Russel Jones William Lawhead Stephen Leach Keane Lundt Erik Meade Ian MacKinnon Allyson Mount Seyed Mousavian Madeline Muntersbjorn Herminia Reyes Frank Ryan Eric Saidel Stephanie Semler Janet Simpson Aeon Skoble Joshua Smith Paula Smithka Krys Sulewski Brian Tapia William Vanderburgh Mark Vopat David Weise Shannon Grace Werre Katherine D.Witzig Stephen Wykstra Ohio University Ohio Wesleyan University El Paso Community College Humboldt State University Polk State College University of Portland Biola University/Long Beach City College Coppin State University Clayton State University Cuyamaca College Edward Waters College West Valley College Clayton State University University of Alaska Anchorage Green River Community College Howard University Uni versity of Oklahoma University of Mississippi UTPA Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville The University of Akron Keene State College University of Alberta University of Toledo San Diego State University Kent State University George Washington University Radford University Su? olk County Community College Bridgewater State College Central Michigan University University of Southern Mississippi Edmonds Community College Foothill College Wichita State University Youngstown State University Gonzaga University Edmonds Community College Southwestern Illinois College Calvin College Of course any errors or omissions that may remain are the result of my own oversight. xviii Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppresse d content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Those who have contributed reviews and suggestions leading to the ten previous editions, and to whom I express my continued thanks, are the following: James T. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Dale Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University; John B.Howell, III, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary; R. I. G. Hughes, University o f South Carolina, Columbia; Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University; Peter Hutcheson, Texas State University; Debby D. Hutchins, Boston College; William H. Hyde, Golden West College; Sandra Johanson, Green River Community College; Gary Jones, University of San Diego; Glenn C. Joy, Texas State University, San Marcos; Olin Joynton, North Harris County College; Grant Julin, St. Francis University; Glen Kessler, University of Virginia; Charles F. Kielkopf, Ohio State University; Moya Kinchla, Bakersfield College; Bernard W. 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Slivinski, California State University, Channel Islands; Arnold Smith, Youngstown State University; JohnChristian Smith, Youngstown State University; Paula Smithka, University of Southern Mississippi; Eric W.Snider, University of Toledo; Bob Snyder, Humboldt University; Joseph Snyder, Anne Arundel Community College; Lynne Spellman, University of Arkansas; David Stern, University of Iowa; James Stuart, Bowling Green State University; John Sullins, Sonoma State University; John Sweigart, James Madison University; Clarendon Swift, Moorpark College; Wayne Swindall, California Baptist College; Bangs Tapscott, University of Utah; Ramon Tello, Shasta College; Jan Thomas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Phil Thompson, Eastern Illinois University; Richard Tieszen, San Jose State University; Larry Udell, West Chester University; Ted Ulrich, Purdue xx Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. University; Robert Urekew, University of Louisville; William Uzgalis, Oregon State University; Thomas H. Warren, Solano Colleg; Andrew J.Waskey, Dalton State University; Roy Weatherford, University of South Florida; Chris Weigand, Our L ady of the Lake University; David Weinburger, Stockton State College; Paul Weirich, University of Missouri, Columbia; Robert Wengert, University of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign; Gerald Joseph Williams, Seton Hall University; Frank Wilson, Bucknell University; W. Kent Wilson, University of Illinois, Chicago; Stephen Wykstra, Calvin College; Marie Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College; Jeffrey Zents, University of Texas; Finally, it has been a pleasure working with philosophy editor Joann Kozyrev, development editor Florence Kilgo, project manager Alison Eigel Zade, project editors Emily Winders and Amanda Hellenthal, and editorial assistant Michaela Henry. Preface xxi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 Basic Concepts 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Recognizing Arguments Deduction and Induction Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity Extended Arguments 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Logic may be de? ned as the organized body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments. All of us encounter arguments in our day-to-day experience. We read them in books and newspapers, hear them on television, and formulate them when communicating with friends and associates. The aim of logic is to develop a system of methods and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.Among the bene? ts to be expected from the study of logic is an increase in con? dence that we are making sense when we criticize the arguments of others and when we advance arguments of our own. An argument, in its most basic form, is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion). All arguments may be placed in one of two basic groups: those in which the premises really do support the conclusion and those in which they do not, even though they are claimed to. The former are said to be good arguments (at least to that extent), the latter bad argu ments.The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates arguments, is thus to develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad. As is apparent from the given definition, the term argument has a very specific meaning in logic. It does not mean, for example, a mere verbal ? ght, as one might  have with one’s parent, spouse, or friend. Let us examine the features of this de? nition in Additional resources are available on the Logic CourseMate website. 1 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 greater detail. First of all, an a rgument is a group of statements. A statement is a sentence that is either true or false—in other words, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence. The following sentences are statements: Chocolate truffles are loaded with calories. Melatonin helps relieve jet lag. Political candidates always tell the complete truth.No wives ever cheat on their husbands. Tiger Woods plays golf and Maria Sharapova plays tennis. The first two statements are true, the second two false. The last one expresses two statements, both of which are true. Truth and falsity are called the two possible truth values of a statement. Thus, the truth value of the ? rst two statements is true, the truth value of the second two is false, and the truth value of the last statement, as well as that of its components, is true. Unlike statements, many sentences cannot be said to be either true or false. Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, and exclama tions usually cannot, and so are not usually classi? ed as statements.The following sentences are not statements: Where is Khartoum? Let’s go to a movie tonight. I suggest you get contact lenses. Turn off the TV right now. Fantastic! (question) (proposal) (suggestion) (command) (exclamation) The statements that make up an argument are divided into one or more premises and one and only one conclusion. The premises are the statements that set forth the reasons or evidence, and the conclusion is the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply. In other words, the conclusion is the statement that is claimed to follow from the premises. Here is an example of an argument: All film stars are celebrities. Halle Berry is a film star.Therefore, Halle Berry is a celebrity. The ? rst two statements are the premises; the third is the conclusion. (The claim that the premises support or imply the conclusion is indicated by the word â€Å"therefore. †) In this argument the premises really do support the conclusion, and so the argument is a good one. But consider this argument: Some film stars are men. Cameron Diaz is a film star. Therefore, Cameron Diaz is a man. In this argument the premises do not support the conclusion, even though they are claimed to, and so the argument is not a good one. One of the most important tasks in the analysis of arguments is being able to distinguish premises from conclusions.If what is thought to be a conclusion is really a premise, and vice versa, the subsequent analysis cannot possibly be correct. Many  arguments 2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to r emove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. contain indicator words that provide clues in identifying premises and conclusion.Some typical conclusion indicators are therefore wherefore thus consequently we may infer accordingly we may conclude it must be that for this reason so entails that hence it follows that implies that as a result 1 Whenever a statement follows one of these indicators, it can usually be identi? ed as the conclusion. By process of elimination the other statements in the argument are the premises. Example: Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Consequently, torture is not a reliable method of interrogation. The conclusion of this argument is â€Å"Torture is not a reliable method of interrogation,† and the premise is â€Å"Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. † Premises Claimed evidence Conclusion What is claimed to follow from the evidenceIf an argument does not contain a conclusion indicator, it may contain a premise indicator. Some typical premise indicators are since as indicated by because for in that may be inferred from as given that seeing that for the reason that in as much as owing to Any statement following one of these indicators can usually be identi? ed as a premise. Example: Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus. The premise of this argument is â€Å"The use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus,† and the conclusion is â€Å"Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs. In reviewing the list of indicators, note that â€Å"for this reason† is a conclusion indicator, whereas â€Å"for the reason that† is a premise indicator. â€Å"For this reason† (except Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 3 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 hen followed by a colon) means for the reason (premise) that was just given, so what follows is the conclusion. On the other hand, â€Å"for the reason that† announces that a premise is about to be stated. Sometimes a single indicator can be used to identify more than one premise. Consider the following argument: It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved, for wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and it is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life. The premise indicator â€Å"for† goes with both â€Å"Wilderness provide s essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species,† and â€Å"It is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life. These are the premises. By method of elimination, â€Å"It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved† is the conclusion. Some arguments contain no indicators. With these, the reader/listener must ask such questions as: What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others? What is the arguer trying to prove? What is the main point in the passage? The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion. Example: The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. Not only does the national defense depend on it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. The conclusion of this argument is the ? rst statement, and all of the other statements are premises. The a rgument illustrates the pattern found in most arguments that lack indicator words: the intended conclusion is stated ? rst, and the remaining statements are then o? ered in support of this ? rst statement. When the argument is restructured according to logical principles, however, the conclusion is always listed after the premises: P1: P2: P3: C: The national defense is dependent on the space program. The space program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. When restructuring arguments such as this, one should remain as close as possible to the original version, while at the same time attending to the requirement that premises and conclusion be complete sentences that are meaningful in the order in which they are listed. Note that the ? rst two premises are included within the scope of a single sentence in the original argument. For the purposes of this chapter, compound arrangements of statements in which the various components are all claimed to be true will be considered as separate statements.Passages that contain arguments sometimes contain statements that are neither premises nor conclusions. Only statements that are actually intended to support the conclusion should be included in the list of premises. If, for example, a statement 4 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. erves merely to introduce the general topic, or merely makes a pas sing comment, it should not be taken as part of the argument. Examples: The claim is often made that malpractice lawsuits drive up the cost of health care. But if such suits were outlawed or severely restricted, then patients would have no means of recovery for injuries caused by negligent doctors. Hence, the availability of malpractice litigation should be maintained intact. Massive federal deficits push up interest rates for everyone. Servicing the debt gobbles up a huge portion of the federal budget, which lowers our standard of living. And big deficits also weaken the value of the dollar. For these reasons, Congress must make a determined effort to cut overall spending and raise taxes.Politicians who ignore this reality imperil the future of the nation. 1 In the ? rst argument, the opening statement serves merely to introduce the topic, so it is not part of the argument. The premise is the second statement, and the conclusion is the last statement. In the second argument, the ? nal statement merely makes a passing comment, so it is not part of the argument. The premises are the ? rst three statements, and the statement following â€Å"for these reasons† is the conclusion. Closely related to the concepts of argument and statement are those of inference and proposition. An inference, in the narrow sense of the term, is the reasoning process expressed by an argument.In the broad sense of the term, â€Å"inference† is used interchangeably with â€Å"argument. † Analogously, a proposition, in the narrow sense, is the meaning or information content of a statement. For the purposes of this book, however, â€Å"proposition† and â€Å"statement† are used interchangeably. Note on the History of Logic The person who is generally credited as the father of logic is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 b. c. ). Aristotle’s predecessors had been interested in the art of constructing persuasive arguments and in techniques for refuting the arguments of others, but it was Aristotle who ? rst devised systematic criteria for analyzing and evaluating arguments.Aristotle’s chief accomplishment is called syllogistic logic, a kind of logic in which the fundamental elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are arranged in the argument. Chapters 4 and 5 of this textbook are devoted mainly to syllogistic logic. But Aristotle also deserves credit for originating modal logic, a kind of logic that involves such concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt. In addition, Aristotle catalogued several informal fallacies, a topic treated in Chapter 3 of this book. After Aristotle’s death, another Greek philosopher, Chrysippus (280–206 b. c. ), one of the founders of the Stoic school, developed a logic in which the fundamental elements were whole propositions.Chrysippus treated every proposition as either true or false and developed rules for determining the truth or falsity of compound propositions from the truth or falsity of their components. In the course of doing so, he laid the foundation for the truth functional interpretation of the logical connectives presented in Chapter 6 of this book and introduced the notion of natural deduction, treated in Chapter 7. Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 5 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 For thirteen hundred years after the death of Chrysippus, relatively little creative work was done in logic. The physician Galen (a. d. 129†“ca. 199) developed the theory of the compound categorical syllogism, but for the most part philosophers con? ned themselves to writing commentaries on the works of Aristotle and Chrysippus. Boethius (ca. 480–524) is a noteworthy example. The ? rst major logician of the Middle Ages was Peter Abelard (1079–1142). Abelard reconstructed and re? ed the logic of Aristotle and Chrysippus as communicated by Boethius, and he originated a theory of universals that traced the universal character of general terms to concepts in the mind rather than to â€Å"natures† existing outside the mind, as Aristotle had held. In addition, Abelard distinguished arguments that are  valid because of their form from those that are valid because of their content, but he held that only formal validity is the â€Å"perfect† or conclusive variety. The present text